History of Sindh

History of Sindh

In ancient times, the territory of the modern Sindh province was sometimes known as Sovira (or Souveera) and also as Sindhudesh, Sindhu being the original name for Indus River and the suffix ‘desh’ roughly corresponding to country or territory.

The first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE.

The Indus Valley Civilization rivalled the contemporary civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in both size and scope numbering nearly half a million inhabitants at its height with well-planned grid cities and sewer systems. It is known that the Indus Valley Civilization traded with ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt via established shipping lanes. In ancient Egypt, the word for cotton was Sindh denoting that the bulk of that civilizations cotton was predominantly imported from the Indus Valley Civilization.

A branch of the Indo-Iranian tribes, called the Indo-Aryans are believed to have founded the Vedic Civilization that existed between Sarasvati River and Ganges River around 1500 BCE and also influenced Indus Valley Civilization. This civilization helped shape subsequent cultures in South Asia. The Aryan invaders instituted the caste system to enslave the native population and the aborigine tribes.[citation needed

Sindh was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE, and became part of the Persian satrapy (province) of Hindush centred in the Punjab to the north. Persian speech had a tendency to replace 'S' with an 'H' resulting in 'Sindu' being pronounced and written as 'Hindu'. They introduced the Kharoshti script and links to the west in the region.

Subsequently conquered by Greeks led by Alexander the Great, the region came under loose Greek control for a few decades. After Alexander's death, there was a brief period of Seleucid rule. Sindh was then conquered by the Mauryans led by Chandragupta in 305 BCE.

Later, during the reign of the Buddhist king Ashoka the region would solidly become a Buddhist domain. Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 232 BCE, the region came under the Greco-Bactrians based in what is today Afghanistan. These rulers also converted to Buddhism and spread it in the region.

The Scythians shattered the Greco-Bactrians fledgling empire. Subsequently, the Tocharian Kushan Empire annexed Sindh by the 1st century CE. Though the Kushans were Zoroastrian, they were tolerant of the local Buddhist tradition and sponsored many building projects for local beliefs.

The Huns and remnants of the Kushans, Scythians, and the Sassanid Persians all exercised some degree of control in Sindh until the coming of the Muslim Arabs in 711 CE.

During the reign of Rashidun Caliph Umar, an expedition was sent to conquer Makran. This was first time when Muslim armies had entered Sindh. The Islamic army defeated the Hindu king of Sindh Raja Rasil on the western bank of river Indus. The armies of Raja accordingly retreated to interior Sindh. Caliph Umar, on getting the information about the miserable conditions of Sindh stopped his armies from crossing the river Indus and, instead, ordered them to consolidate their position in Makran and Baluchistan. Caliph Umar's successor Uthman also sent his agent to investigate the matters of Sindh. Upon getting the same information of unfavourable geographical conditions and the miserable lives of the people, he forbade his armies from entering Sindh. During the Rashidun Caliphate only the south western part of Sindh around the western bank of river Indus, and some northern parts near the frontiers of Baluchistan remained under the rule of the Islamic empire.[4] It was finally Conquered by Syrian Arabs, led by Muhammad bin Qasim. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate referred to as Al-Sindh on Arab maps with lands further east known as Hind. Ironically, these resemble the current border between the two nations of Pakistan and India. The defeat of the Brahmin ruler Raja Dahir was made easier by the tension between the Buddhist majority and the ruling Brahmins’ fragile base of control.

The Arabs redefined the region and adopted the term budd to refer to the numerous Buddhist idols they encountered, a word that remains in use today. The city of Mansura was established as a regional misr or capital. Arab rule lasted for nearly three centuries, and a fusion of cultures produced much of what is today modern Sindhi society. Arab geographers, historians and travelers also sometimes used the name “Sindh” for the entire area from the Arabian Sea to the Hindu Kush. The meaning of the word Sindhu being water (or ocean) appears to refer to the Indus river.

In addition, there is a mythological belief among Muslims that four rivers had sprung from Heaven: Neel (Nile), Furat (Euphrates), Jehoon (Jaxartes) and Sehoon (Sindh or in modern times the Indus).[citation needed]

Arab rule ended with the ascension of the Soomro dynasty, who were local Sindhi Muslims, and who controlled the province directly and as vassals from 1058 to 1249. Turkic invaders conquered the area by 977 CE and the region loosely became part of the Ghaznavid Empire and then the Delhi Sultanate which lasted until 1524.

The Mughals seized the region and their rule lasted for another two centuries, while another local Sindhi Muslim group, the Samma, challenged Mughal rule from their base at Thatta. The Muslim Sufi played a pivotal role in converting the millions of native people to Islam.

Though part of larger empires, Sindh continued to enjoy a certain autonomy as a loyal Muslim domain and came under the rule of the Arghun Dynasty and the Tarkhan Dynasty from 1519 to 1625.

Sindh became a vassal-state of the Afghan Durrani Empire by 1747. It was then ruled by Kalhora rulers and later the Balochi Talpurs[5] from 1783.

British forces under General Charles Napier arrived in Sindh in the 19th century and conquered it in 1843. It is said that he sent back to the Governor General a one-word message, “Peccavi” – Latin for “I have sinned”. In actual fact, this pun first appeared as a cartoon in Punch magazine. The first Aga Khan helped the British in the conquest of Sindh and was granted a pension as a result.[citation needed].

After 1853, Sindh was divided into provinces, each being assigned a Zamindar or ‘Wadara’ to collect taxes for the British (a system already used under the Mughals). In a highly controversial move, Sindh was later made part of British India’s Bombay Presidency much to the surprise of the local population who found the decision illogical. Shortly afterwards, the decision was reversed and Sindh became a separate province in 1935. The British ruled the area for a century and Sindh was home to many prominent Muslim leaders including Muhammad Ali Jinnah who agitated for greater Muslim autonomy.

In 1947, when the British left, Pakistan was created from the partitioning of British India. All of Sindh was allotted to Pakistan. In 1947, 25 per cent of the population of Sindh was Hindu Sindhi. Most of the Hindu Sindhis were city dwellers and were largely occupied with trade and commerce. They were responsible for the export of products made in Sindh and contributed significantly to the economy of Sindh. When the partition of British India occurred the Sindhi Hindus expected to remain in Sindh. Generally, there were good relation between Hindu Sindhis and Muslims Sindhis. When large waves of Mohajirs started to pour into Sindh, violence erupted on the streets. The Hindu Sindhis were forced to flee Sindh, leaving everything behind. Popati Hirandani who was a Sindhi Hindu tells in her autobiography that the Police were merely onlookers when violence erupted and they did not protect the Hindus’ community [6]. Many Hindu Sindhis wanted to return to their native Sindh when the violence settled down, but this was not possible. Property belonging to the Hindus was appropriated by the Mohajirs. Hindu Sindhis are scattered throughout the world and many feel like a stateless people and still regard Sindh as their homeland, Sindhis in India have resisted attempts to have the word Sindh removed from the Indian national anthem[7]. It should be noted, that many Sindhi Hindus still reside in the province of Sindh and relations have considerably improved.

In later years, Sindh has been the destination of a continuous stream of illegal immigration from South Asian countries, and Afghanistan, including Pashtun and Punjabi immigrants to Karachi. Many native Sindhis resent this influx. Nonetheless, traditional Sindhi families remain prominent in Pakistani politics, especially the Bhutto dynasty.

In recent years Sindhi dissatisfaction has grown over issues such as illegal immigration, control of the natural resources of gas, petrol and coal, the construction of large dams, perceived discrimination in military/government jobs, provincial autonomy, admission to educational institutes, and overall revenue shares.