Satghara

Satghara is a small town in Okara District, Punjab, Pakistan. The tomb of Baloch folk hero, Mir Chakar Khan Rind is also located at Satghara.

Pakistani Village

Satghara lies about 80 kilometres from Lahore (20 minutes

in the quiet backwaters of the Punjab. On the southern bank of the Ravi, it is a typical Pakistani village where farmers live like rustics in the face of urban attractions. Though off the beaten track, it has never been out of limelight. Besides heritage conscious travellers from all over the world, Baloch leaders and contemporary historians visit the hamlet. The reason they say is that its a “tukia nwab chrakr ki,” the last resting place of great Baloch hero Mir Chakar Rind.

If one wants to absorb the sense of history, Satghara is just the place. A monument of departed greatness the relic belongs to a celebrated hero who now rest helpless and neglected in this silent place for removed from the noisy haunts of men. In the periphery few van trees, may be as old as the relics, stand witness to the bygone era.
For Balochis the sixteenth century was a very eventful period. They fought series of wars amongst themselves. These tribal conflicts not only cussed large scale blood shed but also resulted in mass migrations to Punjab Sindh and Gujrat.

Mir Chakar Rind is considered one of the greatest Baloch heroes. He is the center of Balcohi love lore and war ballads. He lived in Sevi (modern time Sibbi) in the hills of Balochistan and became the head of Rind tribe after his father Shiahak. A natural leader and great warror, Mir Chakar Rind was a man with resolute determination. After the end of the thirty year war against Lasharies he migrated to Punjab between 1518 to 1519.
Why Chakare-e-Azam as he was known preferred to settle in central Punjab so far away from Sibi is not known. Once at Satghara, he constructed a new hamlet near an old village. He built a fortification wall around the village and watch towers in 15 squares kilometers area encircling the fort for early warning against impending dangers.

Tranquil Village

It was from this place that he refused to help Sher Shah Suri. His forces under the able command of his son Mir Shahdad, joined Humayun when after a long exile the Mughal emperor recaptured Delhi and ousted Afghan Suries in 1556. The emperor as a reward conferred a vast Jagir including Satghara (also horses and slaves) upon him. He ruled this chieftaincy till he died in 1565.

The origin of the Thar desert is a controversial subject. Some consider it to be only 4000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity started in this region much earlier.

• The rains play a vital role in the life of all parts of Thar.

• The land area of Thar is spread over about 22,000 sq. km.

The historians say that thousands of year ago the Thar desert was all under Arabian Sea. There was a great Sea Port at Wirawah, which was then called Parinagar. Sea merchants used this port for their business.
Tharparkar consists of two words, Thar means ‘desert’ while Parkar stands for ‘the other side’. Years back, it was known as Thar and Parkar but subsequently became just one word ‘Tharparkar’ for the two distinct parts of Sindh province. On the western side, Parkar is the irrigated area whereas Thar, the eastern part, is known as the largest desert of Pakistan with a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and casts.

The Parkar area has been formed by the alluvial deposits of river Indus while Thar mostly consists of barren tracts of sand dunes covered with thorny bushes. The only hills of the district, named Karon-Jhar, are in the extreme south-east corner of Nagar Parkar Taluka, a part of Thar. These hills are spread over about 20 kilometers in length and attains a height of 300 meters. Covered with sparse jungle and pasturage, they give rise to two perennial springs as well as streams caused after rain.

The average annual rainfall of the region varies from 100 to 500 mm, it is distributed very erratically, occurring mostly between July and September. The mean average temperature varies from a minimum of 24 degrees C to 26 degrees C in summer to 4 degrees C to 10 degrees C in winter. One unique feature of this desert is that there is neither an oasis in it nor any artesian well. Due to the diversified habitat, the vegetation and animal life in this arid region is very rich. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.

The rain is the main source of water in Tharparkar arid region. It is very erratic and the annual rainfall varies from 0-300 mm. All agriculture and livestock activities are dependent on rainfall. The failure of monsoon would mean no agricultural crop and no fodder for the Thari cattle and livestock. The main crop of Thar is bajra and guwar. In good rainy years, the lintels, melons and sesme are also grown as mixed crop with the main crop of bajra and guwar.

The rains play a vital role in the life of all parts of Thar as the water deposits in tobas (small ponds) are used for drinking, washing and other purposes. Just for this reason, major portion of the population lives like gypsies. When a toba comes to dry, they move to the next destination around the water-filled toba. A large number of families still live in jhugis (one room housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks). The windstorm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).

Life Style

The common life style in Thar is based on joint family system. All three generations; grand-parents, parents and children prefer to live under one roof. However, the men and women have divided out-door and domestic responsibilities among themselves according to their ages and skills. Main duties of the men in the family are ploughing the fields, animal-grazing, weaving and house-construction or other money-earning actvities whereas the women responsibilities include bringing water from the well or pond, cooking, washing, maintenance of house, thread-making, embroidering, knitting etc. The money earned through any means by anyone is the common property of the family.

Culture

Thar is a cultural island in the mid of Sindhi, Rajhestani and Gujrati ocean of cultures. The Rajhestani culture overshadows the other two cultures. Thari music seems to be more inspired by the Rajhestani music traditions but with its own emotional rhythm and colours.

Occupation

The main occupation of Thari people is cattle and livestock rearing from which about 60% of their living derived. At present there are about 4.6 million cattle and livestock comprising of buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel, donkeys and horses. About 10% household get regular flow income through services in various private and public jobs.

The rest of them derive their income through selling handicraft, pottery, shoe mending, tailoring, carpet weaving and other micro-enterprise undertaking.

Of the total land area of 4.5 million acres, 3.4 million is cultivable land and the remaining 1.1 million constituting about 24% is the grazing land for cattle and livestock and the waste land.

Mohenjo-daro was a city of the Indus Valley Civilization, 20 km from Larkana and some 80 km southwest of modern Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and better preserved than Harappa. However, due to rain the upper part of tomb is now destroyed despite steps to further save this world historical place.

Ancient city on the bank of the Indus River, in present-day southern Pakistan

The site of Mohenjo-Daro (also Moenjo-daro, latitude 27 degrees, 25 minutes north, longitude 67 degrees 35 minutes east), in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, is the largest and most extensively excavated Indus city in Pakistan.

This city would have dominated the major trade routes and agricultural potential of the southern Indus plain, from around 2600-1900 BCE.
Mohenjo-Daro is located in District Larkana at a distance of about 28 km from Larakana and 107 km from sukkur.
Mohenjo-Daro was a city located in the south of Modern Pakistan in the Sind Province, on the right bank of the Indus River. It was built between four and five thousand years ago, and lasted until 3,700 BP. It was part of the Harrapan Civilization, and the city had at least 35,000 residents. Mohenjo-Daro means “mound of the dead”.

The city was approximately one square mile in size. In 1922-1927 large scale excavations at Mohenjo-daro were carried out by R. D. Banarjee and continued by M. S. Vats and K. N. Dikshit under the direction of Sir John Marshall. E. J. H. MacKay carried out further excavations from 1927 to1931. Sir Mortimer Wheeler made small excavations in1950.

As a result of this extensive work almost one-third of the area of the old city was exposed, revealing for the first time the remains of one of the most ancient civilizations in the Indus Valley. Typical of most large and planned cities, Mohenjo-daro had planned city streets and buildings. The settlement was thought to house roughly 5,000 people, and had houses, a granary, baths, assembly halls and towers.

Mohenjo-Daro – largest city of the Indus Civilization

The site of Mohenjo-Daro (also Moenjo-daro, latitude 27 degrees, 25 minutes north, longitude 67 degrees 35 minutes east), in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, is the largest and most extensively excavated Indus city in Pakistan.

Mohenjo-Daro – It was built around 2600 BC, and was abandoned around 1700 BC, probably due to a change of course of the river which supported the civilization.

Mohenjo-Daro – The high western mound is generally referred to as the “citadel” mound, but it is subdivided into several sectors.
The city was divided into two parts, the Citadel included an elaborate tank or bath created with fine quality brickwork and drains; this was surrounded by a verandah. Also located here was a giant granary, a large residential structure, and at least two aisled assembly halls. To the east of the citadel was the lower city, laid out in a grid pattern. The streets were straight, and were drained to keep the area sanitary. The people of the city used very little stone in their construction. They used two types of bricks- mud bricks, and wood bricks, which were created by burning wood.

They used timber to create the flat roofs of their buildings; there are brick stairways leading to the roofs of many houses. Some houses were small, and others were larger with interior courtyards. Most had small bathrooms. Potter’s kilns, dyer’s vats, as well as metalworking, bead making, and shell-working shops have all been discovered. The people were good at irrigation and flood control. However, when the Indus River changed its course around 3700 years ago, the civilization died.


All Indus valley sites including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, were built according to a grid pattern plan. Each city had broad parallel streets which crossed each other to divide the city into compact rectangular blocks, and had an advanced and extensive drainage system. In addition to it’s numerous other achievements Mohenjo-daro and other Indus sites made extensive use of baked brick (unlike the sun-dried brick typical of Mesopotamian civilization), which gave greater durability to all of its buildings.

Mohenjo-Daro – Mohenjo-daro is about 400 miles away from Harappa

The site of Mohenjo-Daro (also Moenjo-daro, latitude 27 degrees, 25 minutes north, longitude 67 degrees 35 minutes east), in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, is the largest and most extensively excavated Indus city in Pakistan.

• It was rediscovered in the 1920s by Sir John Marshall’s archaeologists.
• The language of the Indus Civilization has yet to be deciphered.

Defensively Mohenjo-daro was a well-fortified city. Though it did not have city walls it did have towers to the west of the main settlement, and defensive fortifications to the south. These fortifications taken into consideration, as well as a comparison to the Harappa ruins to the northeast, lead to the question of whether Mohenjo-daro was an administrative center. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-daro share relatively the same architectural layout (Harappa is less well preserved due to early site defilement), and were generally not heavily fortified like other Indus Valley sites. It is obvious from the identical city layouts of all Indus sites, that there was some kind of political or administrative centrality, however the extent and functioning (and even the placement and type) of an administrative center remains relatively

The site covers an area of over 250 hectares, representing various phases of urban growth and reorganization. The Indus river is currently situated to the east of the site, but in antiquity it may have been on the west and one channel of the river cuts through the site dividing the so-called “citadel” mound from the “lower town.”

Hyderabad is a hot and humid city in the south of the nation and has been a staging point for literary campaign and a birthplace of many poets. Rich with culture and tradition, the city is the largest bangle producer in the world and serves as a transit between the rural and the urban Sindh.

History

Hyderabad Hyderabad is a city of hillocks. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro of the Kalhora Dynasty founded the city in 1768. A formal concept of the city was laid out by his son, Sarfraz Khan in 1782. The Hyderabad city was then named Neroon Kot نيرون ڪوٽ it was a small fishing village on the banks of River Indus and was called the heart of the Mehran. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhora loved the city so much that in 1768, he ordered a fort to be built on one of the three hills of Hyderabad to house and defend his people. The fort since then is called the Pacco Qillo پڪو قلعو or the Strong fort.

After the death of the great Kalhoro, started the Talpur Rule. Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur left his capital Khudabad, the Land of God and made Hyderabad his capital in 1789. He made the Pacco Qillo his residence and also held his courts there. Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur along with his three other brothers were responsible for the affairs that persisted in the city of Hyderabad in the years of their kingdom. The four were called Char Yar, Sindhi for Four friends.

The Talpur rule lasted almost over 50 years and in 1843, Talpurs faced a greater threat. The British came face-to-face with the Talpurs at the Battle of Miani on 17th February, 1843. It is said that even in rigor mortis the Ameers (Mirs – leaders) held their swords high fighting the British. The battle ended on 24th March where the Mirs lost and the city came into the hands of the British.

The British demolished most of the buildings around to accommodate their troops and their military stores. Hyderabad lost its glory. No longer were the roads covered with perfume. In 1857, when the First War of Indian Independence raged across the sub-continent, the British held most of their regiments and ammunition in this city.

Circa 1947, just before the partition, Hyderabad had a large community of Sindhi Hindus who largely preoccupied areas of trade and commerce. There activities including responsibility of export of products that were made in Sindh and contributed significantly to the economy of Sindh. At this very moment in time, 25 percent of Sindh’s population were Hindus and were deemed the largest minority population. When the partition occurred, Hindus expected to remain in Sindh where their trade loyalties lay, latter events rendered this an impossibility. Whilst the relationship between the Hindus and Muslims in Sindh was good enough, the huge influx of Urdu-speaking Muhajirs started to pour into Hyderabad and violence erupted on the streets. The Hindus were forced to flee, leaving everything behind.

Popati Hiranandani[2][3], born 1924, a writer native to Hyderabad tells of this ordeal in her autobiography and describes that the police were merely onlookers when the violence erupted and failed to protect the Hindu community.

With Hindus occupying mostly the town of Hirabad, their buildings were ransacked and taken over by the Muhajirs. This massive influx of the people gave a boost to the population of Hyderabad and the Government proposed the creation of two more towns, namely Latifabad and Qasimabad.

The 1980s saw a black period in the history of Hyderabad as riots erupted in the city between the two major ethnic groupd, the Sindhis and the Muhajirs. Bloodshed and murder reached extremes. The Sindhis retreated to settlements in Qasimabad and the Muhajirs settled down in Latifabad but the city has never been the same again, forever divided by ethnicity

Geography and climate

Located at 25.367°N latitude and 68.367°E longitude with an elevation of 13m about sea-level, Hyderabad is located on the east bank of the Indus River and is roughly 150km away from Karachi, the capital of the province. Hyderabad is the second largest city in Sindh, eighth largest in Pakistan and 209th largest city of the world with respect to population. Its population estimates to 1,348,288 (as of 2000). Two of Pakistan’s largest highways, the Indus Highway and the National Highway join at Hyderabad.

Several towns surrounding the city include Kotri at 6.7km, Jamshoro at 8.1km, Hattri at 5km and Husri at 7.5km.

Hyderabad has an extreme climate. The days are hot and dry usually going up to extreme highs of 40°C, whilst the nights are cool and breezy. Winds that blow usually bring along clouds of dust, and people prefer staying indoors in the daytime, while the breeze that flows at night is pleasant and clean.

Education

Hyderabad, SindhThe city being a gateway between the rural Sindh and the Greater Sindh, attracts students from the lesser developed regions of Sindh. Hyderabad has a huge number of schools, colleges and Universities.

A nerve center of Sindh nationalist and literary movements, the city is now divided along on Sindhi-Mohajir lines to the extent that the warning ethnic groups even have different hospitals and in many cases, even their places of worship and graveyards are divided. The original old city, now dominated by the mohajirs, seems besieged by the surrounding Sindhi suburbs. At one time a hub of economic, educational and cultural activities, a breeding ground of academicians, philanthropists, writers, lawyers, politicians, journalists, actors and actresses, Hyderabad also had its industrialists, trade unionists, political activists, bureaucrats, bankers and diplomats who made a significant contribution to sub-continental society. But this gracious city now seems to be slowly dying, although it still produces over a couple of dozen major and minor newspapers in both Sindhi and Urdu

Universities and colleges

The University of Sindh[1] is the dominant player in educational reforms since its inception in 1947. The University of Sindh,the second oldest university of the country, was constituted under the University of Sindh Act. No. XVII of 1947 passed by the Legislative Assembly of Sindh. It was founded in Karachi and relocated to Hyderabad in 1951, only because the city was re-enacted as the capital of the province of Sindh. It has 32 colleges affiliated with it. Other universities like the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology and Liaquat University of Medical and Health Sciences serve the interests of a wide range of other specialized subjects. Whilst people prefer to go to this technological and medical universities in the city, universities like the Sindh Agricultural University in Tando Jam focusing primarily on agriculture and horticulture, are highly preferred as well. Other universities in the private sector include University of East and Isra University.

Most of the colleges are affiliated with the universities above but some enjoy repute built of time like the oldest being the Government Degree College now renamed Government College of Technology with its high- and secondary-school affiliations with the Government High School who celebrate alumni like Mirza Kalich Beg.

Museums and libraries

Sindh MuseumHyderabad is home to a few museums that store the cultural heritage of this land of religious and ethnic diversity. The Institute of Sindhology Museum and the Sindh Museum are a haven for Sindhi enthusiasts in ethnological contexts. Whilst there are a few libraries in the city, most of them are in a sad state. Allama Daudpota Library near Sindh Museum in Qasimabad.

People and culture

People and cultureHyderabad is noteworthy in Sindh and Pakistan generally for its relative tolerance; members of religious minorities such as Hindus and Christians are not in as much danger there as elsewhere in the country. However, there has been a history of conflict in Hyderabad between native Sindhis and the Muhajirs, the non-Sindhi Muslim refugees who entered Sindh from post-Partition India in 1947 and who were awarded the abandoned property left by the departing Sindhi Hindus; nowadays Sindhis and Muhajirs live in relative separation, in discrete sectors of Hyderabad.A large influx of Pakhtuns and Punjabis were attracted to Hyderabad after the Indus treaty settlement. Most Punjabis mixed with the local population however most Pakhtuns are distinct and separately living near the railway station and its vicinity.

Native Sindhis mainly reside in Qasimabad, which is still developing. Qasimabad has a lot of problems with its drainage system. It has some famous areas like Naseem Nagar and Abdullah Blessing.

On the other hand Muhajirs live in Latifabad. A large number of Memons having two sects namely Diplai from Thar Parker (Sindh) and Kathiawari from Gujrat (India) live isolated from other citizens. Many Shia Ismaili colonies exist; Aminabad Colony and Mubarakh Colony, are one of the most prominent.

While Christians constitute 2% of the total population, Hyderabad is the seat of a Diocese of the Church of Pakistan and has five churches and a cathedral.

Despite its strategic location and thrifty people the city is under the shadow of Karachi and yet to make its mark economically. One reason for this is the artificial factional and sectarian isolation imposed after the riots of 90s which cleft the urban population.

* The rains play a vital role in the life of all parts of Thar.
* The land area of Thar is spread over about 22,000 sq. km.

The historians say that thousands of year ago the Thar desert was all under Arabian Sea. There was a great Sea Port at Wirawah, which was then called Parinagar. Sea merchants used this port for their business.
Tharparkar consists of two words, Thar means ‘desert’ while Parkar stands for ‘the other side’. Years back, it was known as Thar and Parkar but subsequently became just one word ‘Tharparkar’ for the two distinct parts of Sindh province. On the western side, Parkar is the irrigated area whereas Thar, the eastern part, is known as the largest desert of Pakistan with a rich multifaceted culture, heritage, traditions, folk tales, dances and music due to its inhabitants who belong to different religions, sects and casts.


The Parkar area has been formed by the alluvial deposits of river Indus while Thar mostly consists of barren tracts of sand dunes covered with thorny bushes. The only hills of the district, named Karon-Jhar, are in the extreme south-east corner of Nagar Parkar Taluka, a part of Thar. These hills are spread over about 20 kilometers in length and attains a height of 300 meters. Covered with sparse jungle and pasturage, they give rise to two perennial springs as well as streams caused after rain.

The average annual rainfall of the region varies from 100 to 500 mm, it is distributed very erratically, occurring mostly between July and September. The mean average temperature varies from a minimum of 24 degrees C to 26 degrees C in summer to 4 degrees C to 10 degrees C in winter. One unique feature of this desert is that there is neither an oasis in it nor any artesian well. Due to the diversified habitat, the vegetation and animal life in this arid region is very rich. About 23 species of lizard and 25 species of snakes are found here and several of them are endemic to the region.

The rain is the main source of water in Tharparkar arid region. It is very erratic and the annual rainfall varies from 0-300 mm. All agriculture and livestock activities are dependent on rainfall. The failure of monsoon would mean no agricultural crop and no fodder for the Thari cattle and livestock. The main crop of Thar is bajra and guwar. In good rainy years, the lintels, melons and sesme are also grown as mixed crop with the main crop of bajra and guwar.

The rains play a vital role in the life of all parts of Thar as the water deposits in tobas (small ponds) are used for drinking, washing and other purposes. Just for this reason, major portion of the population lives like gypsies. When a toba comes to dry, they move to the next destination around the water-filled toba. A large number of families still live in jhugis (one room housing units formed with straws and thin wood-sticks). The windstorm proves these jhugis unsustainable all the times. But the poverty leaves no other option to these jhugiwalas (people living in jhugis).

Life Style

The common life style in Thar is based on joint family system. All three generations; grand-parents, parents and children prefer to live under one roof. However, the men and women have divided out-door and domestic responsibilities among themselves according to their ages and skills. Main duties of the men in the family are ploughing the fields, animal-grazing, weaving and house-construction or other money-earning actvities whereas the women responsibilities include bringing water from the well or pond, cooking, washing, maintenance of house, thread-making, embroidering, knitting etc. The money earned through any means by anyone is the common property of the family.

Culture

Thar is a cultural island in the mid of Sindhi, Rajhestani and Gujrati ocean of cultures. The Rajhestani culture overshadows the other two cultures. Thari music seems to be more inspired by the Rajhestani music traditions but with its own emotional rhythm and colours.

Occupation

The main occupation of Thari people is cattle and livestock rearing from which about 60% of their living derived. At present there are about 4.6 million cattle and livestock comprising of buffaloes, sheep, goat, camel, donkeys and horses. About 10% household get regular flow income through services in various private and public jobs.

The rest of them derive their income through selling handicraft, pottery, shoe mending, tailoring, carpet weaving and other micro-enterprise undertaking.

Of the total land area of 4.5 million acres, 3.4 million is cultivable land and the remaining 1.1 million constituting about 24% is the grazing land for cattle and livestock and the waste land.

The Indus provides the key water resources for the economy of Pakistan – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation’s agricultural production, and Sindh. The word “Punjab” is a combination of the Persian words ‘panj’ (پنج) Five, and ‘āb’ (آب) Water, giving the literal meaning of the Land of the Five Rivers. The five rivers after which Punjab is named are the Beas, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej. The river also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan.

The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; it begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh-Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit streams carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500-5,200 metres (15,000-17,000 feet) high near the Nanga Parbat massif. It swiftly flows across Hazara, and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the Punjab and Sind, and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by Panjnad River at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named Satnad River (sat = seven, nadi = river), as the river was now carrying the waters of Kabul River, Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta.

The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Himalayan ranges of Tibet, Kashmir and Northern Areas of Pakistan. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons – it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times – it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch.

History

Paleolithic sites have been discovered in Pothohar, with the stone tools of the Soan Culture. In ancient Gandhara, evidence of cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered at Mardan.

The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilization extended from Balochistan to Gujarat, with an upward reach to the darcon(?) from east of Jhelum River to Rupar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Iranian border to Lothal in Gujarat. There is an Indus site on the Oxus river at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan (Kenoyer 1998:96), and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km from Delhi (S.P. Gupta 1995:183). To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90-96 of the over-800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus (S.P. Gupta 1995: 183).

Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo-Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 to 600 BC, when Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had already been abandoned.

The name Indus is a Latinization of Hindu, in turn the Iranian variant of Sindhu, the name of the Indus in the Rigveda. Sanskrit sindhu generically means “river, stream”, probably from a root sidh “to keep off”; sindhu is attested 176 times in the Rigveda, 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. Already in the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, for example in the list of rivers of the Nadistuti sukta. This resulted in the anomaly of a river with masculine gender: all other Rigvedic rivers are female, not just grammatically, being imagined as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter.

The Indus has formed a natural boundary between the Asian Subcontinent hinterland and its frontier with Afghanistan and Iran. It has been crossed by the armies of Alexander the Great – Macedonian forces retreated along the southern course of the river at the end of the Indian campaign. The Indus plains have also been under the domination of the Persian empire and the Kushan empire. The Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni and Babur also crossed the river to strike into the inner regions of Gujarat, Punjab and Rajputana.

The word “India” is a reference to the Indus River. In ancient times, India referred to the region of modern day Pakistan along the Indus river which traded extensively with the ancient world. It was only after the arrival of the British in the 16th century that name began to be applied to the entire region. Incidently, Pakistan’s founding father, Mohammed Ali Jinnah was quite surprised to learn that upon the departure of Britain from the region, that its new neighboor to the east was going to retain the name India as the country’s official name

Modern issues

Due to its location and vast water resources, the Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan’s economy and society. After the partition of British India in 1947, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split – with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India – disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, Sutlej, Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, Jhelum, Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not Indus) known as the Baghlighar project).

Hindu pilgrimage to holy sites alongside the river has been a source of conflict between the nations. Pakistan does generally allow Indian citizens to visit the country for religious purposes, However, owing to the volatile nature of bilateral relations, most pilgrimage and religious ceremonies are performed by Hindus in Kashmir.

There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards – although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.

This Market, located opposite the General Post Office on Abdullah Haroon Road (Victoria Road), sells a host of handicrafts consisting of brass, onyx and wood items. It also stocks shawls and men’s clothing and has several tailoring shops.

• Saddar Shopping
• Carpet Shopping
• Zainab Market
• APWA Handicraft
• Emperes Market

Hyderabad is a hot and humid city in the south of the nation and has been a staging point for literary campaign and a birthplace of many poets. Rich with culture and tradition, the city is the largest bangle producer in the world and serves as a transit between the rural and the urban Sindh.

History

Hyderabad is a city of hillocks. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro of the Kalhora Dynasty founded the city in 1768. A formal concept of the city was laid out by his son, Sarfraz Khan in 1782. The Hyderabad city was then named Neroon Kot نيرون ڪوٽ it was a small fishing village on the banks of River Indus and was called the heart of the Mehran. Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhora loved the city so much that in 1768, he ordered a fort to be built on one of the three hills of Hyderabad to house and defend his people. The fort since then is called the Pacco Qillo پڪو قلعو or the Strong fort.

After the death of the great Kalhoro, started the Talpur Rule. Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur left his capital Khudabad, the Land of God and made Hyderabad his capital in 1789. He made the Pacco Qillo his residence and also held his courts there. Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur along with his three other brothers were responsible for the affairs that persisted in the city of Hyderabad in the years of their kingdom. The four were called Char Yar, Sindhi for Four friends.

The Talpur rule lasted almost over 50 years and in 1843, Talpurs faced a greater threat. The British came face-to-face with the Talpurs at the Battle of Miani on 17th February, 1843. It is said that even in rigor mortis the Ameers (Mirs – leaders) held their swords high fighting the British. The battle ended on 24th March where the Mirs lost and the city came into the hands of the British.

The British demolished most of the buildings around to accommodate their troops and their military stores. Hyderabad lost its glory. No longer were the roads covered with perfume. In 1857, when the First War of Indian Independence raged across the sub-continent, the British held most of their regiments and ammunition in this city.

Circa 1947, just before the partition, Hyderabad had a large community of Sindhi Hindus who largely preoccupied areas of trade and commerce. There activities including responsibility of export of products that were made in Sindh and contributed significantly to the economy of Sindh. At this very moment in time, 25 percent of Sindh’s population were Hindus and were deemed the largest minority population. When the partition occurred, Hindus expected to remain in Sindh where their trade loyalties lay, latter events rendered this an impossibility. Whilst the relationship between the Hindus and Muslims in Sindh was good enough, the huge influx of Urdu-speaking Muhajirs started to pour into Hyderabad and violence erupted on the streets. The Hindus were forced to flee, leaving everything behind.

Popati Hiranandani[2][3], born 1924, a writer native to Hyderabad tells of this ordeal in her autobiography and describes that the police were merely onlookers when the violence erupted and failed to protect the Hindu community.

With Hindus occupying mostly the town of Hirabad, their buildings were ransacked and taken over by the Muhajirs. This massive influx of the people gave a boost to the population of Hyderabad and the Government proposed the creation of two more towns, namely Latifabad and Qasimabad.

The 1980s saw a black period in the history of Hyderabad as riots erupted in the city between the two major ethnic groupd, the Sindhis and the Muhajirs. Bloodshed and murder reached extremes. The Sindhis retreated to settlements in Qasimabad and the Muhajirs settled down in Latifabad but the city has never been the same again, forever divided by ethnicity

Geography and climate

Located at 25.367°N latitude and 68.367°E longitude with an elevation of 13m about sea-level, Hyderabad is located on the east bank of the Indus River and is roughly 150km away from Karachi, the capital of the province. Hyderabad is the second largest city in Sindh, eighth largest in Pakistan and 209th largest city of the world with respect to population. Its population estimates to 1,348,288 (as of 2000). Two of Pakistan’s largest highways, the Indus Highway and the National Highway join at Hyderabad.

Several towns surrounding the city include Kotri at 6.7km, Jamshoro at 8.1km, Hattri at 5km and Husri at 7.5km.

Hyderabad has an extreme climate. The days are hot and dry usually going up to extreme highs of 40°C, whilst the nights are cool and breezy. Winds that blow usually bring along clouds of dust, and people prefer staying indoors in the daytime, while the breeze that flows at night is pleasant and clean.

Education

The city being a gateway between the rural Sindh and the Greater Sindh, attracts students from the lesser developed regions of Sindh. Hyderabad has a huge number of schools, colleges and Universities.

A nerve center of Sindh nationalist and literary movements, the city is now divided along on Sindhi-Mohajir lines to the extent that the warning ethnic groups even have different hospitals and in many cases, even their places of worship and graveyards are divided. The original old city, now dominated by the mohajirs, seems besieged by the surrounding Sindhi suburbs. At one time a hub of economic, educational and cultural activities, a breeding ground of academicians, philanthropists, writers, lawyers, politicians, journalists, actors and actresses, Hyderabad also had its industrialists, trade unionists, political activists, bureaucrats, bankers and diplomats who made a significant contribution to sub-continental society. But this gracious city now seems to be slowly dying, although it still produces over a couple of dozen major and minor newspapers in both Sindhi and Urdu

Universities and colleges

The University of Sindh[1] is the dominant player in educational reforms since its inception in 1947. The University of Sindh,the second oldest university of the country, was constituted under the University of Sindh Act. No. XVII of 1947 passed by the Legislative Assembly of Sindh. It was founded in Karachi and relocated to Hyderabad in 1951, only because the city was re-enacted as the capital of the province of Sindh. It has 32 colleges affiliated with it. Other universities like the Mehran University of Engineering and Technology and Liaquat University of Medical and Health Sciences serve the interests of a wide range of other specialized subjects. Whilst people prefer to go to this technological and medical universities in the city, universities like the Sindh Agricultural University in Tando Jam focusing primarily on agriculture and horticulture, are highly preferred as well. Other universities in the private sector include University of East and Isra University.

Most of the colleges are affiliated with the universities above but some enjoy repute built of time like the oldest being the Government Degree College now renamed Government College of Technology with its high- and secondary-school affiliations with the Government High School who celebrate alumni like Mirza Kalich Beg.

Museums and libraries

Hyderabad is home to a few museums that store the cultural heritage of this land of religious and ethnic diversity. The Institute of Sindhology Museum and the Sindh Museum are a haven for Sindhi enthusiasts in ethnological contexts. Whilst there are a few libraries in the city, most of them are in a sad state. Allama Daudpota Library near Sindh Museum in Qasimabad.

People and culture

Hyderabad is noteworthy in Sindh and Pakistan generally for its relative tolerance; members of religious minorities such as Hindus and Christians are not in as much danger there as elsewhere in the country. However, there has been a history of conflict in Hyderabad between native Sindhis and the Muhajirs, the non-Sindhi Muslim refugees who entered Sindh from post-Partition India in 1947 and who were awarded the abandoned property left by the departing Sindhi Hindus; nowadays Sindhis and Muhajirs live in relative separation, in discrete sectors of Hyderabad.A large influx of Pakhtuns and Punjabis were attracted to Hyderabad after the Indus treaty settlement. Most Punjabis mixed with the local population however most Pakhtuns are distinct and separately living near the railway station and its vicinity.

Native Sindhis mainly reside in Qasimabad, which is still developing. Qasimabad has a lot of problems with its drainage system. It has some famous areas like Naseem Nagar and Abdullah Blessing.

On the other hand Muhajirs live in Latifabad. A large number of Memons having two sects namely Diplai from Thar Parker (Sindh) and Kathiawari from Gujrat (India) live isolated from other citizens. Many Shia Ismaili colonies exist; Aminabad Colony and Mubarakh Colony, are one of the most prominent.

While Christians constitute 2% of the total population, Hyderabad is the seat of a Diocese of the Church of Pakistan and has five churches and a cathedral.

Despite its strategic location and thrifty people the city is under the shadow of Karachi and yet to make its mark economically. One reason for this is the artificial factional and sectarian isolation imposed after the riots of 90s which cleft the urban population.

History

After 1853′s invasion of Charles Napier, Sindh was divided into provinces and was assigned a Zamindar’s to collect taxes for British, Zamindar’s were also known as ‘Wadero’. Wadero of “Shikarpur” was Lord Wadero Bhagwandas Golani (1861 – 1931) a merchant born in the royal family of the Golani’s.

After his death in his eldest son Shobraj Bhagwandas Golani (1885 – 1978) took over as the Landlord of Shikarpur, Digri, Jamrao, Kachhelo, Tando Jan Mohammed, Ratnabad, Roshanabad and Khayrpur. Shobraj Bhagwandas Golani was also invited to Great Britain by the King along with all the Nawab’s and Rajah’s of India in 1901 to discuss the participation of their respective provinces in Expansion of British Empire in Middle East.

Shobraj along with his eldest son Shri Hashmatrai S Golani (1918 – 1979) moved to Bombay in 1948 after Partition of India and Pakistan. Sindh was made part of British Indias Bombay Presidency, and became a separate province in 1935.

Area and Population

Sukkur district shares northern border with Shikarpur and (recently constituted) Kashmore districts. Ghotki is located on the north-eastern side while Khairpur on the south. Sukkur also shares its border with India (Jaisalmir, Rajasthan). Sukkur is also connected by road air with all major cities of Pakistan. Sukkur has a population of about 1 million (2005 approx)

Climate

The climate of the Sukkur is characterized by hot and hazy weather during summer days while dry and cold in winter. During January, temperature ranges from 7 to 22 °C (44 to 71 °F). The summer (month of June before monsoon) temperature averages 35 °C (95 °F) though it often reaches up to 52°C (107 °F). Generally the summer season commences in March – April and ends before October. The average rainfall of the district is 88 mm, (ranges from 0.59 mm to 25.62 mm) per annum.

Industries

Industries include cotton ginning, silk and food processing, rice and flour milling, textile dyeing, metalworking, boatbuilding, tanning, tobacco processing, shad fishing, and the manufacture of chemicals, cement, candy, tiles, hosiery, and playing cards.

Sukkur is the site of a technical school and of the Sukkur Industrial Trading Estate, which supplies local products to factories.

Attractions

To the south is Sukkur Barrage (about 1525 m/5000 ft long), one of the world’s largest dams, built from 1923 to 1932. From it radiate seven canals, irrigating a region where wheat, rice, millet, and oilseeds are grown. The city was under British rule from 1842 to 1947.

Some other places of interests include Tomb of Shah khairuddin jillani GEA SHAH, Tomb of the Seven Maidens Sateen Jo Aastan, Tomb of Abdul Baqi Purani, Minaret of Masum Shah, Lansdowne Bridge, Shahi Bazaar, Frere Road, Ayub Gate, Looks Parak/Qasim Park, Purana Sukkur (Old Sukkur), Sheikh Shaheen Road Sukkur.

Agriculture

Sukkur had a large fertile and cultivable land till few decades ago, when the Indus river was not as barren as today. Now its agricultural productivity has much reduced. It could not achieve reasonable yield per unit area over time, on account of continuous shortage of water and ignorance of modern irrigation system.

Despite lack of water, during kharif, rice, bajra, cotton tomatoes and peas are cultivated whereas during rabi main crops are wheat, barley, gram and melons. Sukkur is famous world over, for its delicious dates. Sukkur also holds a large number of Riveraine forest on the course of Indus.

These tropical forests are found within the protective embankments on either side of Indus. During 1997-98 the total area under forests was 510 km² which yielded 55,000 cubic feet (1600 m³) of timber and 27000 cubic feet (760 m³) of firewood besides other miner products.