Once standing on the top of imposing Bala-Hisar Fort in Peshawar, one could see the historic Khyber Valley- gateway that has seen traders, conquers, nomads and travellers passing through it. But today, you can only see the jungle of high concrete structures, plazas and clouds of hanging over the cityscape. So much ‘development’ has taken place in the historic city.

Zaheer-ud-Din Babur crossed the Khyber Pass in the Sixteen Century on his way from Kabul, and ordered to strengthen the Fort of Peshawar known as Bala-Hisar (the high Fort). The Fort became a symbol of his victory on this side of the Khyber Pass. Sikhs and British during their rule reinforced Bala-Hisar for different reasons through.

The history of the fort must surely to that of the city, but the early days are marked in mystery. It is tempting, however, to see this as the site of fortification protected by a moat that was visited and described by the Chinese travellers like Hsuan Tsang and later Ruder Kipling. Presently Bala-Hisar fort houses headquarters of a prestigious Frontier Corps- the defenders of the mountains. Many kings have stayed in this Fort cum Royal residence in the past, contemplating their strategic moves to consolidate their gains.

The Mosque Mahabat Khan, Peshawar’s outstanding architecture legacy, in Jeweller’s Bazar was constructed by the Governor of Peshawar Mahabat Khan Mirza Lerharsib, in 1630 during the era of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan. The Mosque was desecrated and badly damaged by the Sikhs in early nineteen century and later when the fire broke out in 1898. The British renovated it for the first time and brought back some of its grandeur.

Presently it is being looked after by the Auqaf Department and seem in an urgent need of attention. Intricate naqqashi is fading and creaks have snacked in the courtyard as well as in the walls of the grand mosque.

For-tiered Cunningham clock tower erected at the turn of the century on the eve of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee other gems in the history of Peshawar that catch the eye of any passer by.

The famous Chowk Yadgar, is located in the amidst of wide and sprawling convergence point of different major roads and bazaars of the city, have witnessed agitation stemming from religious, political and international issues in the country. Commemorative square was originally named in the memory of British Colonel Hastings. In 1969, the square was dedicated to the heroes of 1965 Indo-Pakistan war.

Edward’s Collage was established in 1901 and named in the memory of famous administrative Sir Herbert Edward as missionary boarding school. Later, Haji Sahib of Turangzai laid down the foundation of Islamia collage in 1911. The collage has magnificent frontage facing Jamrud Road with its domes, kiosks and pinnacles rising above the green trees, which contrast sharply with red brick ornate building. The architectural taste is peculiarly of Mughal with a touch of colonial style. Three domed mosque adjacent to the collage is also of the artistic pleasure.

The British made Peshawar their frontier headquarters. They also added a new part to the historic city: typical colonial garrison with Gora Bazaar, church, single men barracks, bungalows and cantonment Railway Station. The blend of colonial and Mughal architecture, shady trees, flower beds along pathways and spacious

Houses in garrison in contrast to the multi storied residences in the city still stand out boldly.

Cosmopolitan character of Qissa Khawani Bazaar-Piccadilly of Peshawar is lined with its traditional kehwa khanas, Tikka, Chapli Kabab and dry fruit shops along with modern show rooms of leather ware and bright coloured garments. The stories of the Amirs of Bokhara and the Khans of Khiva and regional love of ‘Adam and our Khani have been substituted by satellite receivers continuously breaking news and telling amazing tales of fiction from all over the world. General Evitable, the Italian mercenary who was appointed governor of Peshawar by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, built the bazaar in the present shape in the early nineteenth century. Among tourist, it is still best known Bazaar of the city. Afghan refugees who came to Peshawar as a result of Soviet occupation have added yet another dimension in the character of the city in general this bazaar in particular where they can be seen doing business from exchanging money to selling Kehwa.

In a grand Victorian hall, the Peshawar Museum houses one of the world’s best collection of Gandhara art, including stupas depicting the Buddha’s stupa collection presents a clear picture of life of Peshawar Valley during first four centuries A.D. when Peshawar was the capital of a vast empire. Handicrafts, tools and cloths of different tribes in the ethnological portion I the museum are also interesting and throw light on the cultural heritage of the region.

Life during the early days may be severed in old city. Historic houses having bay windows, jharoka and naqqashi work that may be reminiscent of Gandhara. Persian or Greek art are still servicing against all odds.

Sethi houses built during 1830-34, wood – work added in them in 1983, are good specimen of the past. Expert from International Union of Conservation have already carried out a survey for conservation of the houses and the result is still awaited . but the requirement is that Archaeology Department, city development agencies and real estate developers, all should work for preservation of legendary character of the city holding thousands of secrets.

Beyond history, heritage and culture, Peshawar faces all problems urbanization. City once famous for gardens and flowers is turning Grey. A case study of Peshawar has revelled that the city has lost 2700 acres of agriculture land during the two decades (1965-85). This in the addition to 400 of acres of vacant land that has been also eaten up by expending urban functions. In the same period, the land under parks and green space has shrunk from 163 to 75 acres.

With such thick layer of history compressed so tightly, Peshawar today is continuously growing and expanding. The need of the hour is that the concerned authorities should make plans for conserving its heritage otherwise we will lose our rich culture.

Taxila is an archaeological site includes numerous related buildings, fortifications, settlements and monasteries, and shows architectural influences for the length of its role as a Buddhist training center, between the 5th century BC through the 2nd century AD.

At Taxila, you can see the great Buddha. His eyes will gaze upon you till you find yourself gripped by the feeling of awe.
Taxila – It was the capital of the Buddhist kingdom of Gandhara and a centre of learning.

Taxila lies some 35 km (22 miles) north-west of Rawalpindi, near Wah on the way to Peshawar, and is world famous for archeaological sites dating back to the 5th century BC. The Heavy Mechanical Complex and the associated the Heavy Forge Factory, and the Heavy Industries Taxila facility [the former Heavy Rebuild Factory], are located in Taxila.
Exploring Taxila is a multi-dimensional experience.

The richness and variety of the famed Gandhara sculpture is bound to attract your attention. There are many images of Buddha, in stone and stucco and numerous panels depicting all the important stages of the great Sage’s life. One may also find sculptures of the world’s most impressive men of peace. Each carved bit of sculpture shows extravagant beauty and mesmerizing artistery, from colossal to miniature there are literally thousands of such master peices in this collection. To find the difference between the Greek-Roman counterparts and the Gandhara masterpieces will be of great challenge to you.

Then there are the three distinct cities, which are nicely preserved. With your imagination sided by the carved people who inhabit these cities, you will have little difficulty in picturing crowds on the well-laid-out streets, families in spacious houses, priests in the towering stupas and royalty in great palaces.

To welcome you there, are stone men and women who will receive you with open arms in Taxila.

Taxila

• Ancient city, northwestern Pakistan.
• Taxila is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world.
• Taxila was the ancient capital of the western Punjab.

Anxient City, northwestern Pakistan

Taxila – Its ruins, including temples and a fortress, lie just northwest of Rawalpindi
Taxila, the “City of Stones,” was once a flourishing city along the trade routes of central Asia

At Taxila, You can see the great Buddha. His eyes will gaze upon you till you find yourself gripped by the feeling of awe. Other people whom you can meet at Taxila are, Alexander of Macedonia, Asoka the famous Buddhist king and Kanishka. You’ll find their imprints all over the place.

In 327 B.C. Alexander conquered Taxila, which was the Achaemenian Empire. Later it came under Mauryan dynasty and reached a great level of development under the rule of great Asoka.

The next step in Taxila’s history was the indo-Greek descendents of the Alexander warriors. The final period is called The Gandhara period. The great Kushan Dynasty was then established in 50 A.D, and within these 200 years Taxila became the most renowned center for philosophy, art and learning. Taxila is the greatest attraction for the pilgrims and tourists coming from China and Greece. The final period of Taxila i30-Jul-2007he most successful and the greatest Gandhara civilization of last several centuries.

The earliest city of these, is known as Bhir Mound. Which was established somewhere in the sixth century B.C, whose irregular streets, cramped houses and mediocre public buildings indicate its primitive origins. Then comes the Sirkap city which is on the opposite side of Tamara stream, and was built somewhere around the 2nd century B.C. You will find a marked difference between these cities as this city was well planned.

Famous archaeological sites in the world

Taxila – For sometime, it has been the center of Buddhism, the world famous Gandhara sculpture and the center of learning and culture.
Taxila – ancient city of northwestern Pakistan, the ruins of which are about 22 miles (35 km) northwest of Rawalpindi.

As you stroll down its streets you can call at the houses of the affluent and go slumming, as it were, in the more crowded sections where dwelt the common man of the dim and misty past. Note the fortification of wall, the long, straight and impressive main street, the Royal palace, an Apsidal Temple and the shrine of the double headed eagle. Sirsukh the most modern city of them was built by Kushan kings in the first century A.D. It is’nt fully excavated as yet but is clearly, a well-fortified and well-laid-out city. This city is patterned after the Central Asian cities, and is complete with suburbs.

In addition to these cities, there are many monasteries and stupas which have been excavated all along the Taxila valley. Dharmarajika stupa, which is 2 miles from Taxila museum is a must see stupa. It comprises mainly of buildings, a monastery area where the monk lived and a series of small chapels. Wealth of gold, silver coins, gems, jewelry and other antiques were discovered at Dharmarajika.

Jaulian, another marvelous complex of chapels, stupas, quadrangles, and a monastery with assembly hall, store rooms, refectory, kitchen and bathrooms. At five small stupas you will see some beautiful stucco, the relives of Buddha and Bodhisattvas and supported by rows of stone elephants and lions.

Ancient capital of the western Punjab

Taxila – Sanskrit  Takshashila ancient city of northwestern Pakistan, the ruins of which are about 22 miles (35 km) northwest of Rawalpindi
Taxila – It was the capital of the Buddhist kingdom of Gandhara and a centre of learning.

Two miles west of Jaulian is another well-preserved monastery at Mohra Moradu. In one of the monk’s cells here was found a stupa with almost all of the details intact. At Jandial, a mile-and-a-half from Sirsukh, is an imageless temple in the classic Greek style, with sandstone columns and cornices.

Attraction for climbers is Glen of Giri, which is about three-and-half miles from Dharmarajika stupa. Atop the highest peak of the range of hills are two stupas and a fortress built in a cleft near a spring of pure, sweet water. The stucco decorations of the stupas are well worth the climb.
A visit to Taxila is worth spending your money. The men 3000 years ago knew what they were doing when they chose Taxila to built there cities. To feel the enchanting aura and to understand their full importance you’ll have to pay a visit to Taxila. It will take you to an inspiring journey of ancient civilization.

Old Multan is actually a fortified city built on a huge ancient mound and with six gates set at different places. The six entrances to the old city are; Dault Gate, Bohar Gate and Lahori Gate. Three of these (Dault, Lahori and Pak) Gates have been destroyed while the remaining three are intact, although even these are actually reconstruction, from the British period. All the existing gates are of one and the same design. A circular road, locally known as the “alang” runs right around the old city, but inside the fortification wall and not outside it as in common on other old cities. However, a modern circular road also runs on the outer side of the city. The walled city is densely populated with narrow streets, winding lanes and old style houses built quite close to each other. As Multan was once a centre for wood carving, some of its old houses have good specimens of woodwork on their windows and doors.

Being a historical city, Multan is full to tombs, mosques and other monuments of Muslim origin. Apart from historical buildings, there are two other objects in the city which have almost come to be regarded as monuments on account of their excellent workmanship. These are the two huge, carved wood “Tazzia models”, which are the best specimens of craftsmanship.

Multan, it is not surprising, is also known as “Mandinatu-Aulya”, the city of saints. It has tombs, mosques and “Khanqahs” (hospices) of saints. Keeping in view their historical value, priceless art work, architecture style and craftsmanship involved, all these monuments are beautifully decorated and ornamented with blue titles, fresco-paints and mosaic work, and some with the delightful and soothing Kashi and Naqashi work for which Multan is famous.

Multan was an important city even before Islam but it gained importance after the arrival of Islam. Hence most of the crafts and monuments of artistic value are clearly influenced by Islam.

THE HISTORICAL TOMBS

The history of Multan’s Muslim architecture begins with the Muslim conquest. Little is known about the architecture of Multan prior to the 11th century, though elsewhere in Pakistan we can trace the genesis of Muslim architecture from the 8th century A.D. During the 13th and 14th century, a new style of architecture was introduced for funerary memorials of the Muslims in and around Multan the style begin with the tomb of Baha-ud-din Zakariya and culminated in the mausoleum of Shah Rukn al-Din Rukn-I- Alam, which has been admired as “one the most splendid memorial ever erected in the honour of the dead.

These two mausoleums served as perfect models for the future architecture. The architects continued to imitate them for well over six hundred years. The popularity of the style did not lessen even when the more refined and gorgeous Mughal style of Rukn-e-Alam is the beautiful tomb of Sultan Ali Akbar at Suraji Miani near Multan, which was erected in the Mughal period (992/1585).

Some of the common features of all mausolea in Multan are their tapering walls, single dome and the glazed tile decoration on the exterior. Another widespread feature is a wooden canopy, over the main grace. Decorated with carving and grills, the ceiling of the canopy is always adorned with glazed tiles of different motifs. Occasionally the grills are made of marble, ornamented with beautiful geometric designs.

THE TOMB OF SAINT BAHAUDDIN ZAKARYA

Standing at the northeastern side of the old fort which is situated on the high mound, is the tomb of Shikh-al-Kabir, Bahauddin Abu Mohammed Zakariya Al-Qurashi. The tomb occupies the centre of a vast oblong open area measuring 260 feet N.S by 203 feet E.W and is enclosed by a perimeters brick wall. It has two main gates one on the east and the other on the West Side. There is a vow of fourteen “Hujras” on the north for the “Zaireen”.

The tomb was almost completely ruined during the siege of Multan in1848 AD by the British army but was repaired immediately by Makhdum Shah Mahmud. There is no original inscription on the body of the tomb to show the date of its construction and the subsequent repairs. However, from the fact that here lies the great Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya who had erected it himself during his prime time, it can be said that it belongs to the early decades of the 13th century. The Shaikh died on the 7th of Safar (661/21 December 1262).

THE TOMB OF SHAH RUKN-E-ALAM

The mausoleum of Shah Rukn-e-Alam is also situated on the fort mound. The Shaikh was the son of Pir Sadar-Al-Din Arif born at Multan on the 9th of Friday Ramazan 649/26 November 1251. He was the grandson and successor of Shaikh Baha-Al-Din Zakariya.

Shaikh Rukn-i-Alam (Rukn-al-Din) died on the 7th of Friday (735/3 Jamadial-Awwal, January 1335). He was buried in the mausoleum of his grandfather, according to his own will. After sometime, however, his coffin was transferred to the present mausoleum. It was constructed, according to a popular belief, by Ghiyas-al-Din Tughluq (1340-1350) during the days of his governorship of Depalpur, but was given by Feruz Shah Tughluq to the descendents of Shah Rukn-I-Alam for the latter’s burial. The mausoleum of Rukn-I-Alam has been admired by not only the travelers and chroniclers but also by the art-historians and archaeologist who wrote the architectural history of the subcontinent.

The tomb was built on octagon plan, 90 ft in diameter with walls which are 414 ft high and 13.3 ft thick. The mausoleum was constructed with burnt bricks and supported by timber framing, and decorated with tile faced bricks and wood beams. The whole structure is divided into three stories. Over the second story is a smaller Octagon, leaving a narrow3 passage all around the place, above which stands a hemispherical dome. As the tomb is standing on a high artificial mound, it is visible from about 45 kilometers. Most of its patterns are geometric-created by arranging the glazed tiles-and a living testimony to creative genius of their designers. The building is also decorated with some floral as well as calligraphic patterns. In the 1970s the mausoleum was thoroughly repaired and renovated by the Auqaf Department of the Punjab Government. The entire glittering glazed interior is the result of new tiles and brickwork done by the Kashigars of Multan. This clearly demonstrates the talents and dexterity of the local craftsmen.

THE TOMB OF SHAH SABZWARI

The tomb of Shah Shamas Sabzwari is situated near the Aam Khas Bagh, about a quarter of a mile on the east of the ancient port on the high bank of the old bed of the Ravi which is now filled with a multitude of modern buildings. Shah shams Sabzwari was a celebrated “Ismaili Dai”. Very little is known about Shams Sabzari’s life. According to a popular legend, he arrived in Multan at the time of Shaikh Baha-al-Din Zakariya. He breathed his last at the age of 111 years in 675/1276 and was buried in Multan.

The main features of the tomb are similar to those of the city’s other major tombs. It has a square hall in an Octagon shape topped by a high dome. There is a verandah all-round the grave-chamber, with fine arches in every side and a single entrance to the hall. In the courtyard, which is at a lower level than that of the verandah, there is small mosque. Like other decorated tombs of Multan, this tomb is also ornamented with Kaashi tile work and Naqashi work. But recently a fire damaged its entrance seriously.

THE TOMB OF SHAH YOUSUF GARDEZI

This famous tomb is situated near the Bohar Gate. Its building is quite different from the city’s other tombs, with a rectangular hall and a flat, dome-less roof. The hall, which has a small door towards the end of one of its longer sides, is constructed in a big compound. On one side of the compound stands the large hall of an imambargah. The tomb’s present building is a completely renovated one. The rectangular building is thoroughly covered with the blue Multani tiles, decorated with countless floral and geometric patterns arranged in large rectangles, square and border. The skyline is a miniature replica of a fort’s battlement and has a row of arches with borders raised in relief. Below the parapet wall runs a continuous calligraphic border on all four sides. The standard of this calligraphy, however, is not very high. Only blue and while have been used, the motifs include a rich variety of floral patterns.

THE MAUSOLEUM OF SULTAN ALI AKBAR

This tomb is situated in Suraj Miani, a locality in the northwest of the ancient city. Sultan Ali Akbar was a saint of Islamic order, and was the great grandson of Shams-Sabzwari. This is the only epigraphical evidence available about the saint on the façade of the mausoleum, however, the tomb is a very important contribution towards the adoption assimilation and spread of Multani architecture where almost every characteristic of the Rukn-I-Alam’s tomb including the octagonal plan, tapering turrets, the three storied well balanced and harmonious elevation, embellished with colourful tiles revetment, and screened window opening, his some horizontal as well oblique so also noticeable. It is because of this that the monument has been nicknamed the “Little Rukn-i-Alam”. It has glazed style design used according to the available space. The mausoleum stands on a six feet high square platform.

Tomb of Hafiz Muhammad Jamal

This tomb is situated near Aamkhas Bagh surrounded with thick heavy wall of small bricks. The main square building includes a large hall, surrounding veranda and a Majlis Khana.

The tomb was built in 19th century during the reign of Ranjit Singh ( 1810). The land for the tomb was given by Sawanmal, the governor of Multan in those days. The main building was constructed under the supervision of Khawaja Khuda Bakhsh “Tami Waly” and Khawaja Muhammad Isa of Khanpur. With passage of time the building and its decoration were badly damaged, although necessary repair work was carried out on the original pattern in 1972-74. With the exception of the main entrance, the exterior of the tomb is very simple. However, the interior is profusely decorated with Kashi work and glass mosaics – Shisha MinaKari, While the tomb itself is exceptionally fine example of mosaic work. All the motifs and pattern are floral, with different colours.

The site contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Cemetery H culture and the Indus Valley Civilization, centered in Sindh and the Punjab.The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents—considered large for its time.

In 2005 a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artifacts during the early stages of construction work. A plea from the prominent Pakistani archaeologist Ahmed Hasan Dani to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site.

The Indus Valley civilization (also known as Harappan culture) has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh.The civilization, with a writing system, urban centers, and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s after excavations at Mohenjo-daro (which means “mound of the dead”) in Sindh near Sukkur, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in east Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad (as part of the Sind and Punjab Railway) used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts has nevertheless been found.

While Pakistan as an Islamic country was created in 1947 it has a rich Hindu and Buddhist past , but the region has a long history of settlement and civilisation including the Indus Valley Civilisation. The Indus Valley civilisation collapsed in the middle of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Vedic Civilisation, which extended over much of northern India and Pakistan .

Harappa (Urdu:) is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km (22 miles) southwest of Sahiwal
Vedic period

The time period in the history of India known as the Vedic period or Vedic age is the period of the composition of the sacred texts called Vedas and other such texts in Vedic Sanskrit. The associated culture sometimes referred to as Vedic civilization was centered on the Punjab (modern Pakistan) and the Gangetic plain (modern India). Scholarship places the Vedic period into the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE, continuing up to the 6th century BCE when it began to be transformed into classical forms of Hinduism. Early medieval Hindu authors[1] suggest dates as early as the 4th millennium BCE.

Its early phase saw the formation of various kingdoms of ancient India. In its late phase (from ca. 700 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE) and the Middle kingdoms of India.

Gandhāra (Sanskrit, Persian Gandara, Waihind) (Urdu: گندھارا) is the name of an ancient Indian Mahajanapada, currently in northern Pakistan (the North-West Frontier Province and parts of northern Punjab and Kashmir) and eastern Afghanistan. Gandhara was located mainly in the vale of Peshawar, the Potohar plateau (see Taxila) and on the northern side of the Kabul River. Its main cities were Peshawar and Taxila.

The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from the 6th century BC to the 11th century AD. It attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century AD under Buddhist Kushan Kings. After it was conquered by Mahmood of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the name Gandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period the area was administered from Lahore or from Kabul. During Mughal time the area was part of Kabul province.

Punjab

The Punjabis were predominantly Hindu with large minorities of Buddhists like the rest of South Asia, when Umayyad Muslim Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim attacked Sindh and lower Punjab, in 713. This started the process of Islamic conversion among the population of Punjab, as well as India . This process continued for the next 10 centuries but there were significant non-Muslim populations including Hindus and later Sikhs.

The heritage of Seraikistan

Bhutta Wahan
Is situated at a distance of 16 kilometers to the North of Rahim Yar Khan, on the lost river Hakra. The village is said to be named after the name of Raja Bhutta who captured this locality after Raja Dahir. This village is also claimed to be the birth place of Sassi, the renowned heroine of Sassi-Pannun and of Ab-ul-Fazal and Fiazi, sons of Mullah Mubarik.

Islamgarh Fort

Islamgarh ,the old Bhinwar Fort, was built by Rawal Bhim Singh in Sambat in 1665, as the following inscription on its gate in Babri characters proves “Samabat 1665 Asuj Wadi 2, Maharaj Rawal Sri Bhim Singh Ji Maharaj”. The fort is situated in the Cholistan area of Tehsil Khanpur. It is 46 kilometers south east of Baghla Fort. The fort is in a dilapidated state.

Mau Bubarik Fort

According to Tarikh-e-Murad, a fort was built by Raj Hans Karar in Mau Mubarik as a residence for his mother, hence the name Mau refers to mother in local language. The fort was taken by Shah Arghun in 1525 A.D. It was one of the six fortresses of Raj Sahasi 11. It had 20 bastions and Towers. The ramparts were about 549 meters in circumference and the walls very strongly and thickly built. Here the shrine of a saint Sheikh Hakim is of great importance.

Pattan Minara

The ruins of Pattan Minara are located at a distance of about 8 kilometers in east south of Rahim Yar Khan city. It has variously been described as the remains of Ashoka period, who built it in 250 B.C. or a Buddhist monastery. Nearby the minar, remains of a fort, a mosque and some tunnels are also visible. About 110 years ago Colonel Minchin a political agent of Ex-Bahawalpur state started the excavation of these tunnels but discontinued digging for some reasons or other. According to Colonel Toy it was the capital of the Hindu kingdom in 10 A.D. In the mid of the 18th century A.D. Fazal Elahi Khan Halani a Daupauta chief destroyed it and used its materials in the construction of Bhagla and Dingarh Fort.

Mianwali

The ruins of Kafirkot ,Ruins at Mari, Remains of Rokhri,Architectural Objects and Remain-Ruins of Sirkapp Fort .

Marco Polo, who passed through the Pamirs, referred to the country as Bolor. History relates that first a Chinese army and then an Arab (Mongols?) army invaded Chitral from the north by the Broghal pass when the upper part of the country is said to have been converted to Islam. The southern district remained non-Muslim till very late and were then converted to Islam. A Mongol tribe called Yarkhuns invaded Chitral via the Broghal pass and may have given their name to the Yarkun valley. They were opposed by Somalek, leader of the Khows. Another incursion is attributed to Changez Khan and his Tartars.

In the 16th century, the Shah Rais dynasty ruled Chitral. Shah Rais had an adviser by name of Sangin Ali, who apparently came from Khorasan. On the death of Sangin Ali in 1570, his sons ousted Shah Rais and gained control of the country. It is from the second of these sons that the present royal family of Chitral is descended. The highest class, Adamzadas (Katoras), take their names from Sangin Ali’s grandsons. The Katoras are believed to have been descended from Moguls. Headed by Baba Ayub in the middle of the 16th century, they have been ruling the country with varying fortunes for the last 350 years, 350 years of war with the nearby states of Gilgit, Chilas and the Pathans.

Aman-ul-Mulk, Mehtar of Chitral, with some of his many children, in 1890
History books report that Aman-ul-Mulk always had a falcon sitting on his arm. What is that sitting on his left shoulder?

In 1854, the Maharaja of Kashmir made an alliance with Shah Afzal, the Mehtar of Chitral, against the ruler of Yasin and Mastuj (at that time separate from Chitral) who were invading Gilgit, a tributary state of Kashmir. Mehtar Shah Afzal died in 1856 after ruling for 16 years. His eldest son, Mukhtaram Shah II, became the Mehtar. He was a tyrannical ruler and within one year he was removed by his own ministers and advisers. His younger brother, Aman-ul-Mulk, was installed as Mehtar in 1857. Aman-ul-Mulk invaded Gilgit in 1860 because of increasing influence of Maharaja of Kashmir in that area after the death of its ruler, Gohar Aman. His troops clashed with Dogra troops but nothing decisive was achieved and he withdrew his troops from Gilgit. In 1868, Mir Mahmud Shah, the ruler of Badakhshan, invaded Chitral from the north, but his advance was halted by the Chitralis near Durband Pass in Yarkhun Valley. After three days fierce fighting, the ruler of Badakhshan was defeated and he withdrew to his country.

In time of Great Mehtar Aman-ul-Mulk (1857-1892), the state had extended up to Chigha Sarai in Afghanistan and Ghizar and Thui in Gilgit. This great man died suddenly on 30th August 1892 and left the dispute of succession amongst his 16 sons. In a short period of three years, they slaughtered each other to a void throne in his way of rule. Briefly Afzal-ul-Mulk declared himself Mehtar on the death of his father Aman-ul-Mulk. Nizam-ul-Mulk, who was the eldest son and real successor to the throne, was away in Northern Chitral at the time of the death of his father. On hearing the news of his brother declaring himself Mehtar, he proceeded to Gilgit to obtain assistance from the British Agent for installing himself as a Mehtar. In the meanwhile, Mehtar Afzal-ul-Mulk killed his three brothers, Shah Mulk, Wazir-ul-Mulk, Bahram-ul-Mulk and many other leading personalities.

Umra Khan, the Pathan Chief of Jandul and Dir who had offered to help Afzal-ul-Mulk against Nizam-ul-Mulk, seized the Chitrali fort at Nazrat (or Narai) district (now part of Afghanistan), which gave him command of both banks of the Chitral River between Arandu and Bailam. Afzal-ul-Mulk was about to march against Umra Khan when he heard that his uncle Sher Afzal was advancing from the Dorah Pass and had arrived at Drushp in the Lotkuh Valley. Sher Afzal continued to march to Chitral and attacked the fort and in the fight Afzal-ul-Milk was killed. Sher Afzal proclaimed himself Mehtar. When this news reached Gilgit, Nizam-ul-Mulk was allowed to proceed to Chitral and oust Sher Afzal, if he was able to. A fight occurred between Nizam and Sher Afzal near Drasun in which Sher Afzal was defeated and he fled to Afghanistan. Nizam-ul-Mulk was proclaimed Mehtar. The British government recognized Nizam as Mehtar.

Early in 1893, Amir Abdur Rehman Khan of Afghanistan summoned Sher Afzal to Kabul and placed him under surveillance, while a few months later the Amir gave a written promise to the Government of India that he should not again be permitted to create disturbances in Chitral. At the invitation of Mehtar Nizam-ul-Mulk, the government of India made arrangements to send a Mission to Chitral. The mission reached Chitral on the 25th of January and under its influence the position of affairs improved. In May 1893, the mission returned to Gilgit, but a political officer, Capt. Younghusband, with a small escort, was left in the country for the purpose of supplying the government of India with trustworthy information as to the events on that part of the frontier and giving encouragement to the Mehtar.

In January 1895, Nizam-ul-Mulk was murdered while out hawking at Broz, at the instigation of his younger half-brother, Amir-ul-Mulk. Amir-ul-Mulk then seized the Chitral fort and sent a deputation to Lieut. Gurdon, assistant political agent at Chitral, demanding his immediate recognition as Mehtar. Lieut. Gordon replied that the orders of the government must be awaited. Amir-ul-Mulk’s sister was married to Umra Khan and there is little doubt that the murder of Nizam-ul-Mulk was inspired by Umra Khan in conjunction with the party of Sher Afzal. Amir-ul-Mulk being a tool in the hands of the Pathan Chief, who was used in a similar manner by the Amir of Afghanistan, Umra Khan remained in possession of the Narsat (or Narai) district, and all proposals of Nizam-ul-Mulk to attempt the recovery thereof by force had been discouraged. Shortly after the murder of Nizam, Umra Khan with a force of 1200 fighting men and 1500 coolies crossed the Lowari Pass and occupied Lower Chitral, giving out that he was conducting a religious war against the inhabitants (Kafirs) of the Bashgal area. He asked Amir-ul-Mulk to join him but the latter was both unwilling and unable to comply. Umra Khan accordingly laid siege to Drosh Fort. Meanwhile, the political agent at Gilgit, Surgeon Major George Robertson, had been sent to Chitral by the government to report on the situation with his escort of 400 men, 300 being Kashmir state forces. He occupied Chitral Fort. Robertson had previously demanded an explanation from Umra Khan as to the presence of his forces in Chitral and requested him to immediately withdraw. Umra Khan, however, replied that his aim had been to assist and strengthen Amir-ul-Mulk and combine with him on an attack on the Kafirs. Since Amir-ul-Mulk had refused his friendship and acted in a hostile manner, therefore he, Umra Khan, had no alternative left to him but to act as he had done. Owing to the poor and weak leadership of Amir-ul-Mulk and the treachery of Mehtarjao Kokhan Beg and other influential Chitralis, the resistance by the Chitralis collapsed and on 25th January 1895 they were driven away from their position before Drosh Fort itself until the 9th February when the whole garrison surrendered to Umra Khan. After losing the Drosh Fort, the Chitralis concentrated at Ghairat position.

According to the report of Surgeon Major George Robertson dated 1st February 1895, all was well at Chitral and the Chitralis were cheerful and helpful. He also reported that Ghairat, a strong defensive position 10 miles north of Drosh, was still held and that Umra Khan’s followers had deserted him. Suddenly, however, the whole picture changed by the reappearance of Sher Afzal, who was supported by the ruling class of Adamzadas and their adherents. On the 27th of February, Sher Afzal demanded that Robertson along with his troops should withdraw to Mastuj and it became apparent that Sher Afzal and Umra Khan had joined hands to induce the British Officers and their troops to quit Chitral territory, by force if necessary. Having achieved that, the two chiefs would decide who should be the Mehtar. The Adamzadas in the beginning did not side openly with Sher Afzal, but before the end of February they changed their mind and practically joined him in a body along with their followers. Ghairat position was thus denuded of its defenders and was occupied by Sher Afzal’s outposts. Mehtar Amir-ul-Mulk now made overtures to Umra Khan. Robertson therefore placed him in custody in the fort and formally recognized Shuja-ul-Mulk, a boy of 14 years old, provisional Mehtar pending orders of the Government of India.

The British garrison at Chitral Fort now amounted to 419 fighting men besides the administrative staff, transport personnel, servants and 52 Chitralis. The strength of Umra Khan’s force is not known. It was variously computed at 3000 to 5000 men. On 3rd March, Sher Afzal arrived along with armed men following and took positions on the Chitral plain, mainly in the vicinity of the fort. In order to ascertain the strength of the enemy, the garrison of the fort made an ineffective sortie on the afternoon of 3rd March. They suffered heavy casualties and made a difficult retreat to the fort where they were besieged from 3rd March until 19th April, 1895. During the siege period, Chitralis gained two other successes firstly at Reshun where two British officers were captured, their following destroyed and 40,000 rounds of ammunition taken, secondly the annihilation of about 100 men of the 14th Sikhs under Captain Ross at Kuragh defile.

The British garrison at Chitral Fort held out until the approach of a small force from Gilgit under Colonel Kelly which caused Chitralis to withdraw. The Chitral relief under General Low which had approached from the direction of Malakand and the Lowari pass arrived a week later and took Sher Afzal prisoner, while Umra Khan fled to Afghanistan. Sher Afzal with Amir-ul-Mulk and their leading followers were deported to India on the 1st May and the selection of Shuja-ul-Mulk as Mehtar was conformed. A prominent British garrison was ordered to be located at Chitral and it comprised two infantry battalions, one company of Bengal Sappers and Miners and one section of Mountain Battery with two guns. This garrison was annually relieved. In 1899, Chitral levies were raised to occupy three posts viz Zairat, Mirkhani and Arandu in defensive role. Consequently, in 1899, the British garrison was reduced to one infantry battalion, two mountain guns, and a company of Sappers and Miners. Shortly after this, Chitral Scouts were raised in 1903 with Mehtar as Honorary Commandant and two British Officers in command. The object of the scouts in those days was to provide a wholly irregular force of cragsmen for defensive role of the whole Chitral Frontier. The corps was never embodied at one time but each company came up in turn for a short period of training each year. The Strength of the Chitral Scouts was 891 and that of the Chitral Levies 100.

In the winter of 1899-1900, Mehtar Shuja-ul-Mulk in company of the chief of the Gilgit Agency visited the Viceroy of India at Calcutta. In May 1902, the Mehtar was present at the Vice-Regal Durbar at Peshawar and on 1st January 1903 he attended the Coronation Durbar at Delhi, when he was made C.I.E. (“Companion of the Indian Empire”). The only event of importance during the period 1902-1914 was the handing over of District Mastuj, including Yarkhun and Laspur, to the Mehtar, who signed an agreement regarding his relations with the inhabitants of those areas. In 1919 during the 3rd Afghan War, the Chitral Scouts and Mehtar’s bodyguard cooperated with the British garrison at Drosh in an attack on Afghan regulars and tribesmen who had occupied Arandu (Arnawai) in Chitral limits. The action was most successful and the intruders were disbursed and the Afghan fort of Birkot taken. For his services in this connection, the Mehtar received a grant of 1,00,000 as contribution towards expenses incurred by the state. Later in the year, the Mehtar was granted the title of His Highness with a salute of 11 guns and was created a knight (K.C.I.E.). In 1926, the Mehtar agreed in consideration of a further annual subsidy of Rs. 15,000/- to take steps to prevent the smuggling of the drug Charas into India by way of Dir and Swat states. In 1928, another agreement was concluded with the Mehtar under which he undertook to supply local produce to the British garrison on the raising of his subsidy to Rs. 30,000/- a year.

In the year 1936, Sir Shuja-ul-Mulk died after 41 years of rule. He was succeeded by his eldest son Sir Nasir-ul-Mulk. Nasir-ul-Mulk was born at Chitral in the year 1898. He was sent to Peshawar for schooling and later did his graduation from Punjab University. He did one year’s military training with a British regiment in India. He was an intelligent man with somewhat advanced political ideas.

In 1939, the Mehtar married the daughter of the Nawab of Dir. On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, he expressed his loyalty and that of his subjects to the British Crown. He instituted an office of propaganda under the Governor of Drosh, Shahzada Hissam-ul-Mulk, to counter anti-British mischievous rumors. He also instructed the mullahs to preach against the enemies of Britain. The Mehtar was granted the rank of Honorary Major in the British Indian Army in late 1939. Sir Nasir-ul-Mulk died in 1943 after a short reign on about seven years. Nasir left no son but only two daughters, so he was consequently succeeded by his brother, Muzaffar-ul-Mulk. Muzaffar-ul-Mulk was married to the daughter of Sayed Lais Shahzada, a refugee from Zebak in Badakhshan, Afghanistan, living in the Arkari valley at a place called Miragram and it was by her that he had his sons, the elder named Saif-ur-Rehman. In the Spring of 1946, Muzaffar-ul-Milk was taken seriously ill and his chances of survival seemed slight. This set those not well disposed towards the Mehtar thinking and the outcome was that many claimed that Hissam-ul-Mulk, then the governor of Drosh and a true son of Shuja-ul-Mulk and brother of Muzaffar-ul-Mulk, should succeed in place of Saif-ur-Rehman on the grounds that the latter was not born from a ruling house on his mother’s side. False information was passed to Hissam-ul-Mulk that the Mehtar was already dead. This led Hissam-ul-Mulk to proclaim himself as heir to the throne. When the news reached Chitral, a force of bodyguard was sent to Drosh and Hissam-ul-Mulk surrendered. The Government of India recognized Saif-ur-Rehman as heir and Hissam-ul-Mulk was deported to Loralai in Baluchistan.
The grounds that Saif-ur-Rehman could not succeed do not seem firm in the light of the past history of the state. For instance, during the period after the death of the Great Mehtar Aman-ul-Mulk, four of his sons had possession of the throne at different times and it should be noted that Amir-ul-Mulk and Shuja-ul-Mulk were sons by the daughters of Asmar Khan, an Afghan Prince, whereas Nizam-ul-Mulk and Afzal-ul-Mulk were his sons by a Sayed woman, and finally no mention was made of the non-royal blood being a ban on the right of succession. In the Spring of 1946, Muzaffar-ul-Mulk made a partial recovery. Muzaffar-ul-Mulk declared accession to Pakistan in August 1947. He died in 1948 and his son Saif-ur-Rehman was proclaimed as Mehtar.

The rule of Saif-ur-Rehman was a complex entanglement of different policies. Unrest was in fact brewing since February 1949, when soon after the end of the 40 days of morning for Muzaffar-ul-Mulk (his father), the previous Mehtar of Chitral, various shahzadas and others started hatching their plots too overthrow the young, gentle and inexperienced Mehtar. Khan Bahadur Dilaram Khan, the prime minister, Shahzada Birhan-ud-Din, the Commander in Chief, and Shahzada Siraj-ud-Din, the Chief Secretary, joined hands to upset the administration. The young Mehtar also had his advisors like Jillani, Usman and Pir Salah-ud-Din. The Mehtar’s officials and advisers were either immature or had a defective vision to foresee trouble. Due to conflicting policies being pursued by each through the Mehtar, there was chaos and confusion in the state. In April 1949, the arrest of Ataliq Sarfaraz Shah and his relatives and confiscation of their properties aggravated the situation and the government of Pakistan was compelled to intervene. The Political Agent Malakand was sent to Chitral and he remained there during April and May 1949 and a senior civil service officer was posted as Assistant Political Agent at Chitral so as to have effective control over the state administration. Ataliq Sarfaraz Shah and his relatives were released and as many movable properties as could be collected were restored to them. As a result of inquiries made by the political agent, Dilaram Khan and Shahzada Birhan-ud-Din were sent to Haripur Jail in 1949. In September, however, not only Dilaram Khan and Birhan-ud-Din, but also Hissam-ul-Mulk and Mata-ul-Mulk, the uncles of the Mehtar, who had been removed from Chitral earlier, were allowed to return to their homes on giving written undertaking of loyalty. Another reason for this was that the Mehtar wanted to enlist a few supporters and he therefore arranged with the government of Pakistan and got his uncles Hissam-ul-Mulk and Mata-ul-Mulk released from jail.

The eldest daughter of late Sir Nasir-ul-Mulk was engaged to the head of Dir state and it was arranged that she should be sent to Dir on 6th October 1949. Accordingly, the marriage party arrived at Chitral. But the Mehtar declined to abide by the undertaking he had given to the Nawab of Dir, on the plea that he had himself married the girl in June that year but had not made it public until then. This unwise step on the part of the Mehtar seriously strained the relations between Dir and Chitral states and the Nawab of Dir threatened to march into Chitral with a force to avenge this deliberate insult. At this stage, Saif-ur-Rehman sought the help of the Government of Pakistan. He was evacuated to Peshawar by air. In Peshawar, he confessed his folly to the Governor and agreed to go to Pakistan Administrative Services Agency, Lahore, to receive training. He signed a supplementary instrument of accession and accepted a privy purse of Rs. 9500/- per annum and to rule as a constitutional head of state. He signed a farman appointing Shahzada Shahab-ud-Din, Ataliq Sarfaraz Shah and Syed Badin Shah as members of a Board of Administration, with Assistant Political Agent Chitral as its Chairman or chief adviser for Chitral.

The Board of Administration had to face difficulties from the beginning, due to the non-cooperation of those who were jealous of them. The shahzadas, particularly Hissam-ul-Mulk, Governor of Drosh, Khan Bahadur Dilaram Khan, Mata-ul-Mulk, Governor of Lutkoh, and Birhan-ud-Din let loose their wrath on the poor population to force the hands of the government to appoint one of them as Mehtar is place of Saif-ur-Rehman, or Regent in his absence. This unfortunately for them made the public dislike them even more.

From 1949 to 1954, Saif-ur-Rehman virtually remained in exile at Lahore, Peshawar and Abbottabad. He paid a brief visit to Chitral in April of 1954, but returned to Peshawar. In October 1954, he decided to return to Chitral and the Government provided him a Harward aircraft of the Pakistan Air Force for his journey. But the young Saif-ur-Rehman met his tragic end when his aircraft crashed over Lowari Pass.
After his death, his four year old son, Saif-ul-Mulk Nasir, was proclaimed Mehtar of Chitral and recognized by the Government of Pakistan. The Political Agent at Malakand was appointed regent, until the young mehtar became major. Saif-ul-Mulk Nasir was sent to Lahore for schooling.

As mentioned earlier, the state administration was taken over by the government of Pakistan in 1950, which was headed by assistant political agent up to 1966. From 1966, Chitral State became a full-fledged agency and a political agent was posted who was known as Wazir-e-Azam. In August 1969, Chitral became a district and the first Deputy Commissioner was posted. On break-up of one unit in July 1970, Chitral District became a district of the newly created Malakand Division of the North West Frontier Province. The Chitral District Police Force was raised for the first time headed by a Superintendent of Police. Also full time, the Executive Engineer of Public Works Department was posted to look after the communications and buildings. In April 1972, the President of Pakistan through an ordinance abolished the titles, privileges and privy purposes of all the former rulers of the states. Mehtar Saif-ul-Mulk Nasir therefore ceased to be the Mehtar of Chitral.

There are other historical places of tourist importance in Pakistan. Some of them are Taxila, Kot Diji, Rohtas Fort and Uch Sharif. All these places are in one or the other way have great historical significance. Historical places in Pakistan are of special interest to archaeologists and history students.

Mohenjo-Daro
Harappa
Harappa (2nd Article)
Taxila
Satghara
Thar
Sri Lankan Tea Culture
Adalaj Vav, Gujrat
Hindu and Buddhist Architectural Heritage of Pakistan – Vedic period
Tantirimale – as old as Buddhist Lanka
Khojak
Lansdowne Bridge, Sukkur
Rohtas Fort
Northern Areas (Pakistan)
Tomb of Jahangir
Kot Diji Fort
Buddhas of Bamyan
Samadh of Maharaja Ranjit Singhs son in Lahore vandalised

In ancient times, the territory of the modern Sindh province was sometimes known as Sovira (or Souveera) and also as Sindhudesh, Sindhu being the original name for Indus River and the suffix ‘desh’ roughly corresponding to country or territory.

The first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE.

The Indus Valley Civilization rivalled the contemporary civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in both size and scope numbering nearly half a million inhabitants at its height with well-planned grid cities and sewer systems. It is known that the Indus Valley Civilization traded with ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt via established shipping lanes. In ancient Egypt, the word for cotton was Sindh denoting that the bulk of that civilizations cotton was predominantly imported from the Indus Valley Civilization.

A branch of the Indo-Iranian tribes, called the Indo-Aryans are believed to have founded the Vedic Civilization that existed between Sarasvati River and Ganges River around 1500 BCE and also influenced Indus Valley Civilization. This civilization helped shape subsequent cultures in South Asia. The Aryan invaders instituted the caste system to enslave the native population and the aborigine tribes.[citation needed

Sindh was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE, and became part of the Persian satrapy (province) of Hindush centred in the Punjab to the north. Persian speech had a tendency to replace 'S' with an 'H' resulting in 'Sindu' being pronounced and written as 'Hindu'. They introduced the Kharoshti script and links to the west in the region.

Subsequently conquered by Greeks led by Alexander the Great, the region came under loose Greek control for a few decades. After Alexander's death, there was a brief period of Seleucid rule. Sindh was then conquered by the Mauryans led by Chandragupta in 305 BCE.

Later, during the reign of the Buddhist king Ashoka the region would solidly become a Buddhist domain. Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 232 BCE, the region came under the Greco-Bactrians based in what is today Afghanistan. These rulers also converted to Buddhism and spread it in the region.

The Scythians shattered the Greco-Bactrians fledgling empire. Subsequently, the Tocharian Kushan Empire annexed Sindh by the 1st century CE. Though the Kushans were Zoroastrian, they were tolerant of the local Buddhist tradition and sponsored many building projects for local beliefs.

The Huns and remnants of the Kushans, Scythians, and the Sassanid Persians all exercised some degree of control in Sindh until the coming of the Muslim Arabs in 711 CE.

During the reign of Rashidun Caliph Umar, an expedition was sent to conquer Makran. This was first time when Muslim armies had entered Sindh. The Islamic army defeated the Hindu king of Sindh Raja Rasil on the western bank of river Indus. The armies of Raja accordingly retreated to interior Sindh. Caliph Umar, on getting the information about the miserable conditions of Sindh stopped his armies from crossing the river Indus and, instead, ordered them to consolidate their position in Makran and Baluchistan. Caliph Umar's successor Uthman also sent his agent to investigate the matters of Sindh. Upon getting the same information of unfavourable geographical conditions and the miserable lives of the people, he forbade his armies from entering Sindh. During the Rashidun Caliphate only the south western part of Sindh around the western bank of river Indus, and some northern parts near the frontiers of Baluchistan remained under the rule of the Islamic empire.[4] It was finally Conquered by Syrian Arabs, led by Muhammad bin Qasim. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate referred to as Al-Sindh on Arab maps with lands further east known as Hind. Ironically, these resemble the current border between the two nations of Pakistan and India. The defeat of the Brahmin ruler Raja Dahir was made easier by the tension between the Buddhist majority and the ruling Brahmins’ fragile base of control.

The Arabs redefined the region and adopted the term budd to refer to the numerous Buddhist idols they encountered, a word that remains in use today. The city of Mansura was established as a regional misr or capital. Arab rule lasted for nearly three centuries, and a fusion of cultures produced much of what is today modern Sindhi society. Arab geographers, historians and travelers also sometimes used the name “Sindh” for the entire area from the Arabian Sea to the Hindu Kush. The meaning of the word Sindhu being water (or ocean) appears to refer to the Indus river.

In addition, there is a mythological belief among Muslims that four rivers had sprung from Heaven: Neel (Nile), Furat (Euphrates), Jehoon (Jaxartes) and Sehoon (Sindh or in modern times the Indus).[citation needed]

Arab rule ended with the ascension of the Soomro dynasty, who were local Sindhi Muslims, and who controlled the province directly and as vassals from 1058 to 1249. Turkic invaders conquered the area by 977 CE and the region loosely became part of the Ghaznavid Empire and then the Delhi Sultanate which lasted until 1524.

The Mughals seized the region and their rule lasted for another two centuries, while another local Sindhi Muslim group, the Samma, challenged Mughal rule from their base at Thatta. The Muslim Sufi played a pivotal role in converting the millions of native people to Islam.

Though part of larger empires, Sindh continued to enjoy a certain autonomy as a loyal Muslim domain and came under the rule of the Arghun Dynasty and the Tarkhan Dynasty from 1519 to 1625.

Sindh became a vassal-state of the Afghan Durrani Empire by 1747. It was then ruled by Kalhora rulers and later the Balochi Talpurs[5] from 1783.

British forces under General Charles Napier arrived in Sindh in the 19th century and conquered it in 1843. It is said that he sent back to the Governor General a one-word message, “Peccavi” – Latin for “I have sinned”. In actual fact, this pun first appeared as a cartoon in Punch magazine. The first Aga Khan helped the British in the conquest of Sindh and was granted a pension as a result.[citation needed].

After 1853, Sindh was divided into provinces, each being assigned a Zamindar or ‘Wadara’ to collect taxes for the British (a system already used under the Mughals). In a highly controversial move, Sindh was later made part of British India’s Bombay Presidency much to the surprise of the local population who found the decision illogical. Shortly afterwards, the decision was reversed and Sindh became a separate province in 1935. The British ruled the area for a century and Sindh was home to many prominent Muslim leaders including Muhammad Ali Jinnah who agitated for greater Muslim autonomy.

In 1947, when the British left, Pakistan was created from the partitioning of British India. All of Sindh was allotted to Pakistan. In 1947, 25 per cent of the population of Sindh was Hindu Sindhi. Most of the Hindu Sindhis were city dwellers and were largely occupied with trade and commerce. They were responsible for the export of products made in Sindh and contributed significantly to the economy of Sindh. When the partition of British India occurred the Sindhi Hindus expected to remain in Sindh. Generally, there were good relation between Hindu Sindhis and Muslims Sindhis. When large waves of Mohajirs started to pour into Sindh, violence erupted on the streets. The Hindu Sindhis were forced to flee Sindh, leaving everything behind. Popati Hirandani who was a Sindhi Hindu tells in her autobiography that the Police were merely onlookers when violence erupted and they did not protect the Hindus’ community [6]. Many Hindu Sindhis wanted to return to their native Sindh when the violence settled down, but this was not possible. Property belonging to the Hindus was appropriated by the Mohajirs. Hindu Sindhis are scattered throughout the world and many feel like a stateless people and still regard Sindh as their homeland, Sindhis in India have resisted attempts to have the word Sindh removed from the Indian national anthem[7]. It should be noted, that many Sindhi Hindus still reside in the province of Sindh and relations have considerably improved.

In later years, Sindh has been the destination of a continuous stream of illegal immigration from South Asian countries, and Afghanistan, including Pashtun and Punjabi immigrants to Karachi. Many native Sindhis resent this influx. Nonetheless, traditional Sindhi families remain prominent in Pakistani politics, especially the Bhutto dynasty.

In recent years Sindhi dissatisfaction has grown over issues such as illegal immigration, control of the natural resources of gas, petrol and coal, the construction of large dams, perceived discrimination in military/government jobs, provincial autonomy, admission to educational institutes, and overall revenue shares.