In ancient times, Pakistan was a major cultural hub. Many cultural practices and great monuments have been inherited from the time of the ancient rulers of the region. One of the greatest cultural influences was that of the Persian Empire, of which Pakistan was a part. In fact, the Pakistani satraps were at one time the richest and most productive of the massive Persian Empire. Other key influences include the Afghan Empire, and later, the short lived but influential Mughal Empire.

Pakistan has a cultural and ethnic background going back to the Indus Valley Civilization, which existed from 2800–1800 B.C., and was remarkable for its ordered cities, advanced sanitation, excellent roads, and uniquely structured society. Pakistan has been invaded many times in the past, and has been occupied and settled by many different peoples, each of whom have left their imprint on the current inhabitants of the country. Some of the largest groups were the ‘Aryans’, Greeks, Scythians, Persians, White Huns, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, Afghans, Buddhists and other Eurasian groups, up to and including the British, who left in the late 1940s.

The region has formed a distinct cultural unit within the main cultural complex of South Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia from the earliest times, and is analogous to Turkey’s position in Eurasia. There are differences in culture among the different ethnic groups in matters such as dress, food, and religion, especially where pre-Islamic customs differ from Islamic practices. Their cultural origins also reveal influences from far afield, including Tibet, Nepal, India and eastern Afghanistan. All groups show varying degrees of influence from Persia, Turkestan and Hellenistic Greece. Pakistan was the first region of South Asia to receive the full impact of Islam and has developed a distinct Islamic identity, historically different from areas further west.

Ancient sites in Pakistan include: Zorastrian Fire temples, Islamic centres, Sufi Shrines, Buddhist temples, Hindu and Pagan temples and shrines, gardens, tombs, palaces, monuments, and Mughal and Indo-Saracenic buildings. Sculpture is dominated by Greco-Buddhist friezes, and crafts by ceramics, jewellery, silk goods and engraved woodwork and metalwork.

Pakistani society is largely multilingual, multi-ethnic and multicultural. Though cultures within the country differ to some extent, more similarities than differences can be found, as most Pakistanis are mainly of Aryan heritage or have coexisted side by side along the Indus River for several thousand years, or both. However, over 60 years of integration, a distinctive “Pakistani” culture has sprung up, especially in the urban areas where many of the diverse ethnic groups have coexisted and in many cases, intermarried. Education is highly regarded by members of every socio-economic stratum, with the country now having a literacy rate of 55%, up from 3% at the time of independence. Traditional family values are highly respected and considered sacred, although urban families increasingly form nuclear families, owing to socio-economic constraints imposed by the traditional culture of the extended family.

The past few decades have seen emergence of a middle class in cities such as Karachi, Lahore, Rawalpindi, Hyderabad, Quetta, Faisalabad, Sukkur, Peshawar, Sialkot, Abbottabad and Multan. Rural areas of Pakistan are regarded as more conservative, and are dominated by regional tribal customs dating back hundreds if not thousands of years.

Most marriages in Pakistan are therefore arranged. Arranged marriages have been an integral part of Pakistani society for centuries and it is quite normal for people to have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members. But nowadays love marriages are slowly becoming more common and acceptable in Pakistan.

Arranged matches are made after taking into account factors such as the backgrounds of their families. Often a marriage is made within the extended family, such as between cousins. Each tribal group also has certain ceremonies that are an important part of the marriages within that group.


Polygamy is permitted under Pakistani law, however, it is now the exception rather than the norm and is very uncommon in the major cities. A husband is more likely to get himself a second wife, or recommended by family members to have a second marriage, if he remains childless with the first wife.

Kinship:

A Muslim marriage is seen as uniting the families of both the bride and groom, so the kin group is expanded after a marriage. In some tribes there can be neither a cross-cultural marriage nor a dual ethnic one, so therefore the kin groups are and basically remain identical ethnically and culturally.

Proposal party:

Is a reception made in the bride’s house, where the Groom parents and family elders asks for the Bride’s hands from her parents. Once the wedding proposal is accepted the families read Surah Al-Fatihah, which is the first surah in the Quran, and then tea and refreshments are served

Mangni:

Mangni is a formal ceremony to mark the engagement of the couple. It is usually a small ceremony that takes place in the presence of a few close members of would-be bride’s & groom’s families. Prayer and blessings for the couple are recited and the wedding date is usually decided.

Mayoon or Mayun:

Mayoon is celebrated at the bride’s house. Usually the bride’s friends and close relatives get together at her house and they dance and sing, often accompanied by drum music. Generally the bride’s family give bangles and sometimes clothes to her friends, depending on what the family can afford. The evening also usually includes a henna where the women put designs in henna on each others’ hands. The mayoon can last up to late night. The bride usually wears a simple yellow Shalwar Kameez. Mayun is a custom of the bride entering into the state of seclusion eight to fifteen days before the wedding. She is made free of all the chores and errands during this time. The bride and groom are not allowed to see each other after the Mayun. The beautification rituals begin during this time.


Ubtan is a paste made from turmeric, sandalwood powder, herbs and aromatic oils, which groom’s mother brings for bride. She blesses bride and applies “ubtan” to the bride’s hands and face. Groom’s sister also does the same, and a thick string called a “Kangan (Bangles made of Flowers)” is tied to the bride’s arm. “Ubtan” is applied to the bride’s skin each day leading up to the wedding. Similar ceremony is held for the groom, where bride’s mother, sisters, cousins and friends bring ‘ubtan’ for groom and rub it on his skin.

Dholki:

Dholki is a popular ceremony of singing traditional wedding & popular songs accompanied by two or three percussion instruments Dholki being the main. The girl is officially treated as bride (dulhan). She wears traditional Pakistani yellow outfit. Her brothers, sisters, and cousins bring her (bride) in the dholki party.

Mehndi or Rasm-e-Henna:

Mehndi, or the Rasm-e-henna ceremony, typically takes place one or two days prior to the main wedding day. The event is traditionally held separately for the bride and the groom, and henna is symbolically placed on the couple’s hands. The groom’s friends and family bring along sweets and henna for the bride, and the bride’s family does the same for the groom. On the bride’s ceremony the groom normally does not participate and similarly, on the groom’s event the bride stays at home. Female guests are sometimes offered mehndi at the host’s discretion. The ceremony may also be held simultaneously for both the groom and the bride.

The bride normally wears a green dress or yellows /oranges for mehndi and uses only light, or no, make up. The groom will typically wear a casual shalwar kameez. The bride and/or the groom are brought forward in the ceremony under a decorative dupatta by their close relatives.

Baraat:

Baraat is procession of family, relatives, and friends of groom that accompany the groom to bride’s home for official wedding ceremony. Groom makes his way to the bride’s home on a richly decked horse or in a car and ‘baraat’ follows in different vehicles. The barat is often accompanied by the rhythms of a dhol (drum) as it arrives and is greeted with flowers garland and rose petals by the brides family. It is customary for the bride’s sisters and friends to stop the barat from entering the arena until a sufficient amount of cash is given to them. This can lead to banter, usually harmless and just for fun, between the bride’s sisters and friends on one side and the groom’s brothers and friends on the other side. Then family and relatives of the groom and the bride exchange glasses of juice or sherbet along with money or gifts

Nikah:

0A bride signing the marriage contract, Nikaah at a Pakistani weddingNikah is purely Islamic official wedding ceremony that usually takes place at the bride’s home. Nikah is attended by close family members, relatives, and friends of groom and bride. Usually, the men and women are made to sit separately, in different rooms, or have a purdah, or curtain, separating them.

Nikah-naama (document of marriage contract) is registered in Nikah. The Nikahnaama contains several terms and conditions that are to be respected by both parties (bride & groom). It includes bride’s right to divorce her husband. Nikahnaama specifies “Meher”, the monetary amount the groom will give the bride. Meher includes two amounts in Pakistani culture, but in Islamic belief is one total amount; one that is due before the marriage is consummated and the other that is a deferred amount given to the bride at a time to be determined. The Meher guarantees the bride’s freedom within the marriage, and acts as the bride’s safety net.

The fathers of groom and bride act as witnesses to the wedding. If father is not available, the senior male, brother or uncle performs the ceremony. Islamic Imam (called maulana or maulvi) reads selected verses from the Quran and waits for the Ijab-e-Qubul (proposal and acceptance) of wedding. Usually, the groom’s side makes proposal and the bride’s side conveys her assent. Maulvi and witnesses (gavah) take the Nikahnaama to the bride and read it aloud to her. She accepts the Nikahnaama saying “qabool hai” meaning “I accept” and signs it. The Nikahnaama is then taken to the groom and read aloud to him. He accepts also by saying “‘qabool hai” and signs the document. The Maulvi and witnesses (gavah) also do sign the Nikahnaama contract and the wedding becomes legal. The Maulvi recites the Fatihah, the first chapter of the Quran, and various durud, or blessings to mark the closing of Nikah ceremony.


After the wedding is legally announced, dishes of dates and misri (unrefined sugar) are served to the groom’s family. Groom is then escorted to his bride where he’s allowed to sit beside his wife. This is the time when sisters-in-law of groom play pranks and tease the groom.

Mooh Dikhai:

Mooh Dikhai is the ceremony of first time “showing of the face” after the Nikah. The couple is made to see each other in the mirror and the bride unveils her face that she keeps hidden during the Nikah. The custom of Mooh Dikhai is also called “Aarsi Musshaf.” The bride and groom share a piece of sweet fruit, such as a date and family and friends congratulate the couple and offer gifts. Dinner is served to the guests. The sisters, friends, and female cousins of bride take this opportunity to steal the groom’s shoes and demand a sum of money for shoes. This is very popular custom and groom usually carries a lot of cash, due to the popularity of this custom. He pays money to get back his shoes and girls divide the money among themselves.

Shaadi:

The groom usually arrives at the wedding with a band playing dhols, trumpets and horns – signalling the arrival of the men’s side of the family. Families and friends enjoy a wedding ceremony in a marquee, the main day of the wedding is called shaadi, which is the bride’s reception. The event takes place at the bride’s house, where large wedding tents may be set up in the garden or a nearby place. It has also become very common to hold the event in a marriage hall or hotel. The bride’s family is responsible for the reception and arrangements on this day.

The groom may wear a traditional dress such as sherwani with a sehra or turban though some may prefer to wear a western inspired suit. The bride traditionally wears a red/pink/purple gharara, lehenga or shalwar kameez which is heavily embroidered; other bright colors may also be seen. The dress is always accompanied with heavy gold jewellery.

The nikah is the Islamic marriage contract ceremony. It either takes place at the Shaadi itself or on a separate day at the bride’s house, before the shaadi event. It is performed by an imam which formally indicates signing of the marriage contract. The bride and groom must both have two witnesses present to ensure that the marriage is consensual.

A dinner is served which consists of several dishes alongside pullao, biryani, chaap ,dal gosht , kebabs, tandoori chicken and naan with beverages or soft drinks in summer and tea during winter.

Rukhsati:

Finally, the Rukhsati takes place, when the groom and his family will leave together with the bride. The Qur’an is normally held over the brides head as she walks from the stage to the exit in order to bless her. This is a somber occasion for the bride’s parents as it marks the departure of their daughter from their home. The departure of the bride becomes a very emotional scene as she says farewell to the home of her parents and siblings to start a new married life.

Traditionally, the groom traveled by a decorated horse to the bride’s house and after the wedding ceremony took his wife in a doli (palanquin) to his parents’ house to live. The horse and the carts have nowadays been replaced by cars, and one will, in sharp contrast to western weddings, typically see a quiet bride with wet eyes as she sits in the car beside her husband leaving for her new home.

Valima:

This is the final day of the wedding held by couple as they host their first dinner as husband and wife. The groom’s family invites all of the bride’s family and their guests to their home for a feast at their place or a marriage hall. The walima is typically the most festive event of the wedding ceremony and intends to publicize the marriage.

The bride wears a heavily decorated dress with gold jewelery provided by the groom’s family. Typical colour palettes are pastel shades. The groom normally opts for a formal Western suit or tuxedo.
The Western equivalent to the walima would be the wedding reception, though walima’s are held the day after the shaadi or wedding.

Religious and ethnic:

Wedding ceremonies and customs often differ significantly between Deobandis , Barelwis , Shias and Sunnis and also among the different sub-groups of the Barelwis. The above mentioned marriage customs are typical of a fairly liberal-minded Pakistani family. More orthodox families have more sober ceremonies, especially no music is allowed, and the bride wears a Hijab. Customs are also variety among Punjabis, Pakhtuns, Sindhis , Memons, Balochis, Muhajirs, Biharis and Kashmiri Muslims.

Islam

. Islam is practised by the majority of Pakistanis and governs their personal, political, economic and legal lives.
. Among certain obligations for Muslims are to pray five times a day – at dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening.
. Friday is the Muslim holy day. Everything is closed.
. During the holy month of Ramadan all Muslims must fast from dawn to dusk and are only permitted to work six hours per day. Fasting includes no eating, drinking, cigarette smoking, or gum chewing.

The Family

The extended family is the basis of the social structure and individual identity.
. It includes the nuclear family, immediate relatives, distant relatives, tribe members, friends, and neighbours.
. Loyalty to the family comes before other social relationships, even business.
. Nepotism is viewed positively, since it guarantees hiring people who can be trusted, which is crucial in a country where working with people one knows and trusts is of primary importance.
. The family is more private than in many other cultures.
. Female relatives are protected from outside influences. It is considered inappropriate to ask questions about a Pakistani’s wife or other female relatives.
. Families are quite large by western standards, often having up to 6 children.

Hierarchical Society

. Pakistan is a hierarchical society.
. People are respected because of their age and position.
. Older people are viewed as wise and are granted respect. In a social situation, they are served first and their drinks may be poured for them. Elders are introduced first, are provided with the choicest cuts of meat, and in general are treated much like royalty.
. Pakistanis expect the most senior person, by age or position, to make decisions that are in the best interest of the group.
. Titles are very important and denote respect. It is expected that you will use a person’s title and their surname until invited to use their first name.

The news of a male child’s birth is a happy tiding for parents as well as for near relatives. The news spreads like wild fire in the neighbourhood and messengers hasten to distant places to break the happy tidings to paternal and maternal uncles etc. This is called Zairay. The person who breaks the good news first to a near relative receives a handsome reward in cash. Relatives and friends felicitate the proud parents and let off their guns as a mark of jubilation. The father warmly receives the guests, slaughters a ram or goat and serves a sumptuous lunch to the visiting guests. Sweetmeats are also distributed among the young and old alike.

Female relatives also hurry to the house to offer congratulations to the child’s parents. They bring presents, including clothes for the infant and also offer some money. A record of the money, so proffered, is kept for repayment on a similar occasion. All women who offer money are given Loopatas (Scarfs) in addition to sweetmeats.

The first important ceremony in the child’s life is performed by the village Mullah or priest or an old pious man. The Mullah whispers Azaan (call to prayers or profession of faith) in his or her ears. The village Mullah receives some money for this religious service. The child is also given a dose of indigenous medicine called Ghotti. This liquid compound is administered to the child by a pious woman, preferably mother of several sons. Within seven days of the birth, the child is named as Ayub, Ali, Ishaq, Yaqoob, Aisha, Fatima etc as the custom of naming children after the Prophets, particularly Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him) and his companions, is very common.

The infant is wrapped in swaddling clothes with his hands tied to his body. This binding practice continues for over six months. The idea behind the binding of infants from shoulders to toes seems to be to prevent him from exhaustion or causing an injury to himself. For most of the time during the day, the child is kept in a swinging cradle which is in common use all over the sub-continent. At night the child is laid beside its mother. The child entirely belongs to the mother, she feeds it, at least, for two years and makes every possible endeavour to protect it from the malignant eye or the glance of evil spirits.

Those women who have no male issue pay visits to they holy shrines on Thursday nights and beseech the favours of the holy saints for a male child. They offer alms and sometimes bind a stone to one of the flags hanging beside a wall or tree near the saint’s mazar. They add one more flag to the existing numbers when their cherished desire is realised. Those women who give birth to females in succession without any male issue, curse their misfortune and shed tears of remorse on the birth of a female child.

After the child’s birth, precautionary measures are taken to protect the mother from evil spirits and genii. She does not take a bath, at least, for a fortnight after the birth of the child. The mother is never left alone in the house at least for forty days in succession for fear of evil spirits. It is generally believed that both mother and child are susceptible to the influence of genii etc during the first forty days.

The mother refrains from doing any work for a week and she resumes her usual occupations after a lapse of 40 days.

Sar Kalai (Head Shaving)

The second important ceremony in a child’s life is Sar Kalai or hair cutting. When the child is about 40 days old, his or her hairs are shaved by a village barber. The barber is given some money for this service. This event is also celebrated with the slaughter of a goat or sheep for guests.

Soonat (Circumcision)

The third important ceremony is know as Soonat i.e. Circumcision of a male child. The Circumcision ceremony is again performed by the village barber when the boy is over one year old. On this occasion the boy is made to sit on an earthen platter called Khanak in the compound of the house duly attended by his relatives. They also offer some money to the child. This ceremony is observed by well-to-do persons with pomp and sumptuous feast.

Schooling

In the fourth stage the child, generally is sent to a Mullah in the village mosque for religious education, including learning by heart of Namaz and reading of the Holy Quran. He is first taught Kalma Tayyaba and later other tenets of Islam. He also starts going to school at the age of five to six years. Along with spiritual and temporal education he makes a debut in sports of masculine nature, including wrestling called Parzawal. Later he adopts shooting as his hobby. After school hours he goes on shooting excursions and shoots down birds. He uses a catapult like weapon called Ghulail for hunting. In this stage of life he develops an aptitude for sporting excursions such as target shooting and finally starts going round with a rifle slung over his shoulder for self protection. At that time he begins helping his father in his work. The young girl on the other hand assists her mother in household work and shares the domestic duties with her.

Pakhtoons are fond of rifles and young boys can be seen carrying rifles under their arms. Seldom will they be seen un-armed. Their fondness for arms is evident from a Pashto proverb that though they might not have good food they must be in possession of fine arms.

According to the last census in late 2008, the population comprises several main ethnic groups:

* Punjabis (44.15%)
* Pashtuns (15.42%)
* Sindhis (14.1%)
* Seraikis (10.53%)
* Muhajirs-Urdu Speaking (7.57%)
* Balochis (3.57%)
* Others (4.66%)

Smaller ethnic groups, such as Kashmiris, Hindkowans, Kalash, Burusho, Brahui, Khowar and Shina are mainly found in the northern parts of the country. The people of the Pothohar Plateau in northern Punjab, Potoharis are sometimes listed separately from Punjabis. This would tend to decrease the Punjabi population further.

After independence of Pakistan, Muslims from neighboring countries have settled and they speak many languages. In Karachi, Memons, Bohras and Ismailis speak Gujarati, Kutchi and Memoni languages. The Bengalis speak Bengali and Rohingyas speak Rohingya. These linguistic groups are adopting Urdu and are assimilating into Muhajir community.

Pakistan’s census does not include the registered 1.7 million Afghan refugees from neighboring Afghanistan, who are mainly found in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) areas, with small numbers in the cities of Karachi and Quetta.[1] Around 2 million Muslim refugees from Middle East, Central Asia and South Asia (especially Bangladesh, Iran, Tajikistan, Africa, Sri Lanka, Burma, Arab countries) and other places are also found in Pakistan.

Major ethnic Groups of Pakistan

Punjabis
Punjabis in Pakistan are multi-ethnical group of people, and can be divided into sub-groups. They are natives of Greater Punjab. The Punjab has been conquered in the past by Arabs, Turks, Persians, Afghans and they have intermarried with the local population thus many of the clans claim origin from Arabs and Turks. One uniting factor among Punjabis is their Punjabi language. Punjabis have many different dialects and that depends in what region of Punjab they are from.

Pashtuns
Pashtuns or Pakhtuns (sometimes Pathans) are Pakistan’s second largest ethnic group that are native to the land principally west of the Indus River. However, they can be found in cities all throughout Pakistan. The largest urban population of Pashtuns is interestingly found in the city of Karachi with a total estimated population of about 4 million[citation needed], this is then followed by Peshawer, Quetta, Lahore in descending order. There are more than double the number of Pashtuns in Pakistan than they are in Afghanistan, where they are the largest ethnic group in the country(Afghanistan). Pashtuns practice a unique code of conduct referred to as Pashtunwali and are known for their tribal structure.

Sindhis
Sindhis are ancient people principally inhabiting the province of Sindh, Pakistan from where the river Indus (in ancient times revered to as Sindhus) runs and subsequently, from which they derive the name Sindh from. Believed to be the inheritors of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, Sindhis are heavily influenced by Balochis in Pakistan. Sindh also has considerable Arab and Persian influence. It is estimated 35-40% of Sindhis are of Baloch origin.

Balochis
The Baloch are settled in Balochistan region of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Baloch are settled in Balochistan, Sindh and Punjab provinces of Pakistan. The Baloch constitute about 6% of Pakistani population while they constitute 44% of population in Balochistan. It is estimated 35-40% of Sindhis are of Baloch origin.

Muhajirs
Muhajirs are a multi-ethnic community who are partly descended from Arabs, Persians, Afghans and Turks. The Muslims of Middle East and Central Asia have historically, travelled to South Asia as technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis during the Islamic Sultanates and Mughal Empire and settled permanently. Most Muhajirs have converted to Islam during the Muslim rule of South Asia under the influence of Sufis. It is estimated that around 30 to 35% of Muhajirs are of Pashtun heritage. The Muhajir community also includes peoples of Punjabi heritage. In broader terms, it also includes Memons, Bohras and Ismailis that spoke Gujarati, Kutchi and Memoni languages and are now assimilating into Muhajir community. The Bengali and Rohingya refugees in Karachi are also assimilating into Muhajir community. The uniting factors of Muhajirs are Islam and Urdu language.

Saraikis
The Seraikis are believed to be the transitional group of people between Punjabis and Sindhis. The Seraikis or Multani people are settled in southern Punjab. The Seraikis maintain that they have a separate language, Seraiki language, and culture but their language is often viewed as a dialect of Sindhi language in Sindh and Punjabi language in Punjab.

Minor ethnic groups of Pakistan

Hindkowans
Hindkowans are believed to be the transitional group of people between Punjabis and Pashtuns. They are also known as Punjabi Pathans. Their traditional homeland are areas around Abbottabad in Hazara and Mianwali, Dera Ismail Khan and Dera Ghazi Khan, in Punjab and Kohat, Peshawar in the North-West Frontier Province . Peshawar City population is composed of indigenous people who speaks Hindkowans and Pashtuns who one or more generation ago start migrating to Peshawar.

Hazaras
Hazaras are a Persian speaking people residing in Quetta and as refugees in the Islamabad area. Genetically, the Hazara are primarily a mixture of eastern Eurasian and western Eurasian peoples. The genetic research suggests that they are closely related to the Mongols and the Uyghurs. The Pakistani Hazaras estimate population believed to be more than 200,000.

Sheedis
The Sheedis are African people brought during the Arab rule in Balochistan and Sindh provinces of Pakistan as soldiers and slaves were brought from Africa. The descendents are also called Makranis or Sheedis. The Sheedis (also called Habshi, from Arabic حبشي ḥabashi) are a Negroid people in Pakistan. They number around 150,000 in Pakistan.

Tajiks
Tajiks are a Persian-speaking people, with traditional homelands in present-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, southern Uzbekistan, northern Pakistan and Uyghuristan in western China. The Pakistani Tajiks are estimated to be over 1 million. Tajiks of Pakistan are often considered similar group of people as Dardic/Chitrali people of Pakistan.

Baltis
Baltis are an ethnic group of Tibetan descent with some Dardic admixture located in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan and Ladakh, a region in Kashmir; as well as scattered in Pakistan’s major urban centres of Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad/Rawalpindi. The Balti language belongs to the Tibetan language family and is a sub-dialect of Ladakhi.[2] Balti, Ladakhi and Burig are mutually intelligible

Islam replaced the earlier religious ideologies. Thousands of mosques, tombs and gardens, depicting the Muslim culture, were built. Over a period of thousand years, Islamic architecture bloomed and its cuisines were fascinated. One of the Turkish gifts was Pakistan’s national dress, the ‘shalwar kameez’.

Cultural Monuments

The Lahore fort, the Badshahi mosque, Smadhi Rangit Singh in Lahore, statues of fasting Buddhas, beautiful and always lively shrines of Muslim saints, especially in Multan, all are the evidence of an extremely rich culture.

The Lost Civilizations

During the 2nd century B.C, Buddhists took over the region after Alexander the great invaded it in 326 B.C. For more than around 1000 years, this region was influenced by Buddhism; many of the Gandhara sculptures are still at display in Lahore and Taxila.

The glorious Indus Valley Civilization left another cultural treasure to be cherished by Pakistanis. The Pakistani and French archaeologists, in 1980s, found stone tools, bowls, drinking glasses and dishes, mud houses and ornamental beads at Mehargarh, Balochistan. Archaeologists learnt a great deal by studying the life of Mehargarh people. These are all included in contributions towards a rich culture.

Conserving The Pakistani Culture

There are different organizations working towards saving Pakistani culture from deterioration. The National Fund for Cultural Heritage (NFCH) was established in 1994 through a Parliamentary Act. Its objectives included the preservation, conservation and publication of Pakistani culture. Through financial and technical assistance, NFCH works towards achieving its goals of securing this heritage. Their aim is to conserve the Pakistani culture including all archaeological, historical and architectural values.

It is also NFCH’s objective to undertake and promote research for the conservation of Pakistani culture. NFCH also arranges materials for publication of periodicals, pamphlets, newspapers and posters etc., for the enhancement of Pakistani heritage.
There are also some other organizations at work for the conservation of Pakistani culture like Aga khan Trust for Culture (AKTC). It is an international organization which focuses on the physical, social, cultural and economic revitalization of communities in the Muslim world. The Aga khan Trust for Culture, Pakistan, is engaged in the revival of the local culture and heritage. They believe in restoring, so that it leads to the infusion of new life into historic landmark buildings. This organization has restored the villages and neighborhoods in and around the Baltit Fort with the help of the local residents. They are tirelessly working for the conservation and development of Baltistan and Hunza. Without the help of local residents, this restoration would not have been possible.

Owing to their strong religious feelings for their brethren-in-faith, the Turks, a large number of Pukhtoons, especially the Afridis, deserted in large number from British army in France, Mesopotamia and Egypt in the First World War. They were averse to fighting against their co-religionists and that was why the General Officer Commanding in Chief, Egyptian Expeditionary Force, was compelled in November, 1917 to repatriate three Indian officers and 202 other ranks and all Frontier Pukhtoons of 58th Rifles from Egypt and recommended ban on their recruitment on account of their “bad behaviour”.

The Pukhtoons are punctilious in offering their daily prayers and observance of fast during the month of Ramazan. Writing about the devotion of Pukhtoons to their religion, Major H. B. Edwards says, “whatever occupation they might be engaged in, whether business or pleasure, it was always interrupted at the hour of prayers”. He adds, “in my tent, which was always full of people concerned in some case or other, they would break off the conversation, and ask to be excused for a moment; then take a scarf and spreading it in the corner towards Mecca, devoutly commence their genuflections”. Each Pukhtoon village has a mosque in which a Mullah or Pesh-Imam leads the daily prayers and imparts religious education to the village children. The Mullah is served free meals and he receives Zakat and alms from village folk. Alms giving and Zakat is common and Haj is performed by men of means. Alms giving is especially resorted during adversities and food is also served to the poor. On the occasion of Eid, Barawafat, Muharram, Shab-e-Barat and certain other religious day rich food is prepared to invoke the blessings of Allah.

The holy men, Saints, Sayyids and Mians are held in deep reverence. They give amulets and charms to the people which are considered to be antidote to illness, disease, calamity and evil influences. They are shown utmost respect and their hands are kissed in acknowledgement of their priety. The practice of Piri-Murid (Teacher-student relation in suphism) is also common. A Pir or religious preceptor guides his Murid or disciple in his spiritual progress. For this purpose he takes a Bai’at (affiliates himself) at the hands of the Pir who enjoys the reputation of holy man and has the ability to guide him in establishing commission with God. Sometimes lunatics and impostors are also mistaken for saintly persons. But the younger generation equipped with modern education and imbued with the spirit of enlightenment, is immune from such influences.

SHRINES:

Being orthodox Muslims with strong religious susceptibilities the Pukhtoons hold holy men and their shrines in high esteem. The devotees pay frequent visits to shrines and enter the presincts bare-footed and entreat the saint’s blessings for the restoration of falling health, wealth and success in certain other ventures. The more a saint enjoys reputation, the more his tomb attracts devotees. Certain ziarats (shrines) have a special reputation for the cure of specific ailments and are credited with certain other virtues. For example prayers are offered for the birth of a male child at Ziarat Kaka Sahib and Pir Baba and visits to several other shrines are considered effective for curing of madness, rheumatism, dog bites, hysteria and certain other ailments. The visitors and devotees, particularly women bring back a handful of salt or gur which is believed to be a cure for illness. For Muslims, Friday is a sacred day and visits to the shrines are paid on Thursday or the night preceding Friday. Pukhtoons, like all good and devout Muslims, raise their hands and offer Fateha while passing by a graveyard.

Shrines are the safest places in tribal areas and the tribesmen keep their articles in them without any fear of pilfering. No one dares to lay hands on any article kept in a shrine due to the sanctity of the place and possible wrath of the buried saint. Reputable shrines are often under the charge of a care-taker (known as Munjawar in Pashto and Mutawali in Urdu) or a fakir who lives on the premises and collects donations both in cash and kind from the devotees to provide water and food to future visitors (langar). The trees around a shrine are never cut and the birds enjoy complete safety. The observance of Urs or annual festival at various Ziarats is also common. The devotees attend these gatherings annually for two days in large number and engage themselves in Zikar or religious meditation.

Eid-ul-Fitr or Kamkay Akhtar and Eid-ul-Azha or Loe or Star Akhtar are the two main festivals which are observed with great zeal. In some places a fair is held on the Eid day while at others on the day following the Eid. The boys make large bonfires called Katamirs and kindle them on a hill top in the evening, preceding the Eid Day. Young and old alike, wear new clothes on Eid Day, and the entire area wears a festive look just as Christmas is celebrated by the Christians.

Moharram and Eid-e-Milad-un-Nabi or `Bara Wafat’ are also observed with deep reverence and due solemnity. Pious men among the Pukhtoons engage themselves in prayers particularly during Lailatul Qadar or “the night of power”. On this night the Holy Quran was revealed to the Holy Prophet of Islam. The night of Lailatul Qadar has been described in the Holy Quran as better than a thousand months. Muslim jurists differ in their opinion regarding the date of its occurrence. Some of them are of the opinion that this night falls on 21st or 23rd of Ramadan while others believe that it falls on 27th or 29th. However, all the doctors of Mohammadan Law agree that Lailatul Qadar falls during the last ten days of the holy month of Ramadan and every prayer is accepted on this auspicious occasion.

TOBAY WESTAL:

After a persistent dry spell when drought conditions prevail, the people of the villages headed by the Mullahs come out to the fields and offer prayers, at least for three consecutive days. This is called “Tobhay Westal” or supplicating God for rain. Besides, children of the village come out in streets and collect wheat, maize and barley from the houses of the village. While collecting grain the children chant in a chorus:- Ka cha ra karruloo ghanam – Khudai ba war kerri sra zaman (God in turn will give sons to anyone who gives wheat), Ka cha ra karraloo joowar, Khudai ba war karri war pa war (God in turn will give sons one after another who gives maize) Ka cha ra Karreley Orbashey – Khudaya ta war Sara Kha shey (May God bless those who give us barley). After the collection of grain the children cook it and after serving it to the poor they pray for rains. They also go to the nearby graveyard and sprinkle water on graves.

SUPERSTITIONS:

Doud Dastoor or customs and traditions are in fact the product of historical, geographical and economic conditions. Evolved in process of time, social usages become the guiding principles of day to day life and all individuals living in a particular society feel bound to abide by them.

It is a common phenomenon that customary laws of the masses are not free from religious and even superstitious influences. In Pukhtoon customs at least some of them are also not immune from such influences. The use of amulets and talismans has already been mentioned. Besides, strange ways and means are devised by them to protect themselves from the evil eye and evil effects of Jinni and demons. Pukhtoon women believe that evil spirits cannot come near a newly born infant if a knife or a dagger is put near its pillow or at its head. Therefore, they always keep a sharp edged weapon besides the infant’s pillow to ward off evil spirits. The child may be sick and suffering from diarrhoea, dyspepsia or any other malaise, but the old grandmother will ascribe it to the influence of some evil spirits. Instead of taking him to a doctor’s clinic for treatment, she mutters charms and throws red hot metal in cold water to scare away the evil spirit or a possible evil eye. This, she believes, is the only remedy to cure the infant’s illness. And if these charms do not work, she is convinced that the child is suffering from throat trouble. She takes him to some experienced man or woman of the locality for raising its uvula. This, in Pashto called is Jabai Porta Kawal.

The raising of uvula is common all over the tribal areas. Some raise it by putting the index finger inside the child’s mouth while others put a handkerchief around child’s neck and give him a few jolts after muttering of charms. Not contented with this the mother will put amulets (Tawiz) round the child’s neck as a protection against the evil eye or Bad Nazar. The amulets written by a pious man and woven in a string are suspended round the child’s neck. Some of these amulets are sewn in a cloth, some are wrapped in a leather or silver leaf inset with costly stones, depending on the financial position of the child’s parents. Sometimes a black spot (Kalak) is put on the child’s forehead in an attempt to protect him against the evil eye. In certain clans a child is deliberately kept dirty and ill clad for warding off the evil spirits. The claws of a leopard or a lion are also sometimes hung around their necks. The old grandmother also believes in charms. She takes a handful of wild rue (called Spailanay in Pashto) which is considered a panacea for warding off a malignant eye. She puts some wild rue on red hot coals and starts revolving the bowl round the ailing child while chanting some magical incantations. This is called “Nazar Matawal” or removing effects of the evil eye. After the wild rue is burnt it is kept in the door way of the house with smoke emitting from it. Sometimes an old woman takes a few red chillies, revolves them round a sick persons’s head and then puts the pods in the fire. There is a famous maxim in Pashto that the Da ranz ranzoor raghaigee, Da stargo ranzoor na raghaigee”, i.e. `an ailing person may recover from illness but ailment caused by an evil eye cannot be cured’. On other occasions a goat or lamb is slaughtered and the blood of the sacrificed animal is sprinkled on the door or wall of the house to ward off possible natural calamities. But as a result of the general rise in education, the educated tribesmen no longer believe in such superstitions. They take their children straight to a doctor’s clinic in case of illness.

When a baby is carried out of the house, a veil is placed over its face to protect it against the possible affect of an evil eye. Some men and women are notorious for a malignant or evil eye. It is generally believed that their looks can break even a hard stone into pieces. Similarly mothers desist from carrying infants while visiting a house where death has occurred because of fear of Bad Ghag or evil voice. They also have recourse to some other expedients to guard the child against evil spirits.

Besides this, several other superstitions are prevalent in Pukhtoon society. For example, the cawing of the crow on a house wall or top of a nearby tree is considered as a sign of the impending arrival of some guests. Similarly, falling of flour on the ground at the time of kneading is interpreted to mean that some guests or visitors can be expected. The howling of dogs at night is considered a bad omen, indicating the coming sickness or death of some one in the family.

The winking of the right eye lid is taken to mean a happy tiding and throbbing of a left eye lid as a bad omen. In case of a hiccup, it is generally believed that an absent friend or relative is remembering. While removing shoes, if perchance, one shoe lands on top of the other, it is thought that the person would undertake a journey in the near future. If the right palm starts itching, it is believed that money will come into his hands. On the contrary if the left hand itches it is generally believed that the person will lose some money. The crowing of a hen, which is quite un-usual, is considered a bad omen and it is killed the moment it crows.

The sight of a dirty man or a sweeper early in the morning is considered un-lucky. Similarly a distinction is made between fortunate and unfortunate days. Certain days are considered lucky for journeys while others are believed to be un-lucky. If a person dies at a place other than his village or home town, a black hen is slaughtered before the engine of a car or bus at the time of taking the corpse to its native place for burial. Similarly a black hen is slaughtered in between the fore-legs of the horse or mare of the tonga in which the corpse is carried. The tribal Pukhtoons refrain from incurring the ill-will of Pirs and Fakirs and even men possessed with an evil tongue called Tor Jabay. The speech of Tor Jabay is considered more deadly than a lethal weapon and his curses may become harbingers of misfortune.

The Pukhtoons generally rely on dreams. The sight of a white or green object, in a dream, is considered auspicious while black objects, fire and floods etc are considered inauspicious. They have a strong belief in destiny. Fate is considered as absolute and un-changeable.

Some strange notions are found among Pukhtoons about the “Whirlwind of dust which spins abut in autumn”. It is generally believed that the whirlwind is caused by a jin. Similarly when a storm blows for two or three days, the Pukhtoons are heard saying that some innocent man might have been brutally assassinated somewhere. A child born feet first is called “Sakki”. It is generally believed that “a few gentle kicks from one, so born”, can relieve pain in the back. During the winter when it rains continuously for a week or so, the children erect dolls made of flour clay called “Ganjyan”. The ganjyan are considered a means of stopping the rain. The taking of fal or omen from some religious book is commonly believed and practiced. On Shab-e-Barat the village women assemble in a house. Each woman puts a ring, comb or some other object in an empty pitcher and a small boy or girl is deputed to take them out one by one. At the time of taking out an article, a woman recites a few verses such as “Ma jagh kawa ma spara, Khudai ba dar karri pa tayyara” i.e. God will provide you with food even without ploughing fields. The better the verse in composition, the more it is considered auspicious. In matters pertaining to superstitions Pukhtoons now do not believe much in fabulous tales due to the general rise in education. But the illiterate, particularly those who live in inaccessible hilly tracts, are comparatively more superstitious than the people living in the plains. Charms and omens are generally believed in by the un-educated masses, especially the women.

Though there are several references to the existence of spirits in the Holy Quran and Ahadith, yet belief in genii is considered as a superstition by almost all the European writers. It would not be without interest for the readers to know some thing about Pukhtoon’s belief in jins. The Pukhtoons believe in genii, evil spirits and Churail etc. The genii, it is believed, can assume the form of a human being, beast, animal or of anything they want to. The genii are stated to be of two kinds ^____ believers and non-believers and good and bad. If a good tempered jin takes a fancy to a person, it will attend upon him like a faithful and devoted friend, ready to render him any service even at odd hours. The genii or fairies called Khapairay in Pashto are particularly known for their friendliness and there are innumerable tales of fairies sincerely devoted to their male friends. These creatures, which are described as resplendently handsome, help their friends in making fortunes. It has almost become proverbial about a poor man prospering in life that he has drunk a fairy’s milk. Any person possessed by a Jin is believed to have the power of discovering stolen articles and predicting the future. When asked to give information about a certain object, he or she will excite himself or herself in a state of hysteria or induce a trance to make the predictions.

A man acting like a lunatic is believed to have been possessed by a Jin. It is a common belief that the Jin possesses the victim’s tongue and controls all his actions. When it occurs, a Sayyid, Mian or a learned Mullah credited with the power of exorcising the evil spirits is immediately sent for. He recites a few verses from the Holy Quran and conjures the jin to depart. The exorcist addresses the jin in a threatening language to leave, if soft words and entreaty prove of no avail. When the battle of hot words does not produce the desired effect, then the exorcist writes a charm on a piece of paper and burns it under the afflicted man’s nose. Recourse is also made to certain other methods to force the jin to depart. Sometimes the afflicted person’s hand is held in a firm grip by a strong man. He presses it as hard as he can till the patient starts crying out in agony and pain and appeals for mercy. It is believed that the jin speaks through the patient’s tongue. The exorcist, therefore, asks it to leave and swear by Prophet Sulaiman (Solomon), who is believed to be the king of all genii, not to come again. Sometimes short wooden sticks are put in between the patient’s fingers and his hand is pressed hard. If this device also fails then the exorcist places a frying pan on the fire with some ghee (melted butter) in it and throws a charm in the boiling ghee to make the jin flee or die.

CHILLA:

It is a common belief that a man can obtain the services of genii by means of talismans or certain invocations. For this purpose he undergoes the rigours of a chilla for a period of forty days. Chilla is of two kinds ^____ spiritual and temporal. The spiritual chilla is practiced for the purification of the soul whereas the temporal chilla aims at making wordily gains by means of controlling genii. During the period when anybody is undergoing the arduous task of chilla, he remains in a state of meditation, keeps himself aloof from the people and chooses an un-inhabited or deserted place, for self-mortification. He follows his Pir’s instructions both in letter and spirit. By sitting within a circle (`Hisar’) drawn around himself he remains vigilant and contents himself with little food and water barely able to sustain him. There is the possibility of his becoming mad, if he moves out of the circle contrary to his Pir’s instructions or frightened out by the resisting jin. It is said that during the last few days of Chilla genii appear before the probationer in horribly hideous shapes to frighten and lure him out of the circle. If he, succeeds in completing the prescribed course without falling a prey to the genii’s insidious temptations, he gains control over them and the leader of the genii appears in person before the man for carrying out his orders and all the genii, old and young alike, follow suit.

Khattak

History of Khatak dance

A journalist of Pashtun origin, Amanullah Ghilzai, traced the roots of Khatak to an ancient Greek dance. According to his theory, Khatak, or Athan, is one of the earliest forms of the ancient Greek dance, Athena. The Greeks brought this dance with them to Bactria (ancient Afghanistan)

(Note by Zarin Khattak. Greeks were at Afghanistan for a war and their stay was too short. So it seems illogical. Russain’s stay at Afghanistan was more than a decade but no one adopted their dances. ath mean hand lath mean leg. athan is exercise of hand musscles so this make it Attanr.when a friend invite other to join him in dance he will say ” raza chi lasoona chag ko=let us raise hands”. In common Pashtu lathen mean donkey’s back leg strike . Poor foot performance is also called lathen.Attan have much similarity with caucasian dances)

Athan, or Attan, has been preserved in one of its earliest forms by members of the Khatak and other Pashtun tribes, including the Ghilzais. There are many regional variations of Athan. In ancient Greece, the dance Athena had the same definition and reverence attached to it as Pashtuns accord to Athan. Athena seems to have disappeared in Greece during the Christian era while Athan survived in Afghanistan and Pashtun parts of Pakistan

Details of the dance form

Khattak is a dance performed very quickly set to uptempo music featuring the piper, clarion, and drums beaten with sticks. Up to forty men dance together wielding swords or handkerchiefs and performing acrobatic feats. The fast tempo of Khattak distinguishes it from other Atanr, which start slow and pick up speed as the dance progresses.

The Khattak dance has a lot of forms: Shahdola, Bangra, Balballah, Qamar Balbala , chatrali, braghda’ona, tamseeli dana ,charri dana and indiviual performance.

Bangra is derived from word Bangrai or Bhangrai (Bengal). This dance have to performed in circle. Bird view of performance look like Bengal so this is why it is called Bangra or Bhangra. this is merely war exercise to warm up body muscles it is slow in rhythm and with pauses to hold sword like today soldiers hold rifle in Musketry.In the Bangra, every member swirls while carrying swords. In 1-3 circles of unlimited number of elder’s young and children, each carrying a sword and a handkerchief, start dancing in circle having band andsurnai in the centre,At the beginning of Bhangra , few performers turn by turn sing love songs or quotations which is called “Takkay” (5-7 Takkay by each, Takkay is commonly popular in sheep herders, they sit on the hills and sing on the top of hill with high pitch, if someone there on other hill he will reply the Takkay in return and some play it with their floats ), at a high pitch, which is meant to convey to the audience that they would like to be tipped for their performance. At the end of the song, the drumbeat increases and the dance goes on.

Balbala is performed immediately by the same group stage with fast rhythm to swet up body. Balballa is staged without swords. while Qamar balbala is exercise to get control on stepping and stable the body balance at the top of hill and it is performed with swords. sword is used to keep balance while moving quickly on uneven surface of the hill.

individual performance of Khattak dance comprises 12 steps, which require great skill on the part of the dancers. The dancer alternates between performing solo and synchronizing with the rest of the troupe. groups of 2 or four performers,carrying a sword and a handkerchief,perform turn by turn. while the rest of the troupe members wait for their turn. In the Laila, a group of four performers holding two swords each perform stunts while moving in a circle.

Braghoni is the fastest and the most adventurous of all the steps: A single dancer performs with three swords. He swings two swords in the air while holding the third in his mouth.

Sindhi language:

Most Sindhi speakers in Pakistan are concentrated in Sindh. The remaining speakers are found spread throughout the many areas of the world (mainly other parts of India) to which members of an ethnic group migrated when Sindh became a part of Pakistan during the partition of British India in 1947. The language can be written using the Devanagari or Arabic scripts.
Geographical distribution:
Sindhi is taught as a first language in the schools of south-east Pakistan, except in large metropolises like Karachi. Sindhi language has a vast vocabulary; this has made it a favourite of many writers and so a lot of literature and poetry has been written in Sindhi.

In India:

Sindhi is one of the major literary languages of India recognized in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. It is spoken by a large number of people who, after migration from Sindhi due to partition of the country in 1947 have settled mainly in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. Significant number of Sindhi speaking people reside in South India and in some other regions of the country. Among the modern Indian language, Sindhi is the only language which is not an official language of any particular state. Hence being a stateless language, special efforts are required for its growth and preservation of its literary heritage.

Sindhi speech is generally classified into six major dialects:
i. Siraiki, spoken in Siro, i.e. Upper Sindh
ii. Vicholi, in Vicholo, Central Sindh

iii. Lari, in Laru, i.e. Lower Sindh

iv. Lasi, in Lasa B’elo, a part of Kohistan in Baluchistan on the western side of Sindh

v. Thari or Thareli, in Tharu, the desert region on the southeast border of Sindh and a part of the Jaisalmer district in Rajasthan

vi. Kachhi, in the Kutch region and in a part of Kathiawar in Gujarat, on the southern side of Sindh.

Vicholi is considered as the standard dialect by all Sindhi speakers. It is commonly used among the educated class and is accepted as the language of literature and education (also for administration in Sindh, Pakistan). The largest Sindhi-speaking city is Hyderabad, Pakistan.

Sounds:

Sindhi has a very rich sound inventory. It has 46 distinctive consonant phonemes (more than all the phonemes of English combined) and a further 10 vowels. All plosives, affricates, nasals, the retroflex flap and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four seperate implosives.

Melas (fairs) and malakharas (wrestling festivals) are popular. Falconry, horse and camel breeding and racing are characteristic pastimes. Sindhi fishermen float earthen pots to catch the palla fish in the Indus, bullock cart racing and cockfighting are also typical of the province.

Genuine love for fellow beings, large heartedness and hospitality constitute the very spirit of Sindhi culture and it is the association of the cultural elements that elevate it and keep aloft its banner among the contemporary cultures of South-Asia. Having lived for centuries under the changing sway of various dynasties i.e. the Arabs, Mughals, Arghuns, Turkhans and Soomras, Sammahs, Kalhoras and Talpurs, Sindhi culture is a fusion of multiple culture patterns. These splendor and enrichment are reflected in Sindhi art and architecture, habits and customs. The old tombs and buildings in Thatta, Sehwan, Hyderabad, Sukkur and the excavations at Bhambore, Brahmanabad and Debal bear ample evidence in support of the above statement. These places fostered in their environment, some of the best cultural values which were handed down to the inhabitants of the adjoining areas. Today, these values form the very foundation of Sindhi culture.

The Sindhi language has pure Sanskrit basis and is closely related to the ancient Prakrit. Its alphabet contains fifty-two letters. The Rev. Mr.G. Shirt of Hyderabad, one of the first Sindhi scholars, considered that the language is probably, so far as its grammatical construction is concerned, the purest daughter of Sanskrit. It has small sprinkling of Dravidian words, and has in later times received large accessions to its vocabulary from Arabic and Persian. After the advent of Islam, a number of Sindhi scholars not only wrote books in Arabic on various aspects of Islam, but also composed poetry of a high order in that language. During the rule of Soomras and Sammas, Sindhis produced excellent poetry, and amongst the earliest and best-known poets we find the name of Syed Ali and Qazi Qadan both of Thatta and their younger contemporary, Shah Abdul Karim of Bulrhi, the great-grandfather of Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai.

Qazi Qadan (870-985 A.H.) introduced Philosophy into Sindhi poetry. He has in his poetry laid great emphasis on purity of mind and the study of the self. In one of his verses he says, “Even if you master thoroughly the great Arabic works Qudoori and Kafia you will only be like an ant sitting within a well in a limited environment knowing nothing of the world outside”.

Then comes Shah Abdul Karim of Bulrhi. In 98 couplets he has explained the intricacies of human philosophy. In one of his couplets, he says “The best way of Living in the world is to give your heart to the beloved and be bodily connected with fellow human beings”.

Shah Latif and his contemporaries, Shah Inayat, Muhammad Moeen Thattvi lsso Mian and Misri Shah, were also pioneers in the field of the well-known Sindhi Kafi Lyric. Others who contributed to kafi were Qasim, Hyder Shah, Fazil Shah, Pir Mohammad Ashraf, Assooran and Qaleech Beg. Misri Shah is considered to be the undisputed monarch in the domain of Kafi. The term Kafi was originally taken from Shah Abdul Latif’s waie, which correspond to Ghazal. Sachal Sarmast added glory to Kafi in his lyrics.

POETRY

After the advent of Islam, a number of Sindhi scholars not only wrote books in Arabic on various aspects of Islam, but also composed poetry of high order in that languages. It is presumed that these scholars also wrote in their own language. During the rule of Sumras and Sammas, Sindhis produces excellent poetry, and amongst the earliest and best-known poets, we find the name of Syed Ali and Qazi Qadan both of Thatta and their younger contemporary, Shah Abdul Karim of Bulrhi, the great-grand father of Shah Abul Latif Bhitai.

Long before the British rule, under the influence of Persian poetry, the Sindhi poets borrowed many ideas from Persian poets. There were, however, some poets such as Mohammad Qasim, Murtaza Thattavi, Gul Mohammad Gul, Syed Gada, Hafiz Hamid, Mir Abdul Hussain Sangi, Zaman Shash and others who, in spite of having adopted Persian forms, derived their inspiration from the classical Sindhi poets. Theirs works have, therefore been popular among the masses, as well as people of more sophisticated tastes. Others, who continued to compose in indigenous styles, using the Sindhi language in its purest from, include Misree Shah, Mahdi Shah, and Hafiz Shah. Sahibdion Shah, Wali Mohammad Leghari and Hammal Faqir.

Qazi Qadan (870-985 A.H.) of Sehwan was the Sindhi poet who introduced philosophy and mysticism into Sindhi poetry. He has in his poetry laid prate emphasis on purity of mind and the study of self. In one of his verses he says: ” Even if you master thoroughly the great Arabic works Qudoor and Qafa you will only be like an ant sitting within a well in a limited environment, knowing nothing of the world outside.

Kafi the Shah and his contemporaries, Shah Inayat, Muhammad Moeen Thattvi, Isso Mian and Misri Shah, were also pioneers in the field of the well-known Sindhi Kafi Lyric. Others who contribute to Kafi were Qasim, Hyder Shah, Fazil Shah, Pir Mohammad Ashraf, Assooram and Qaleech Beg. Misri Shah is considered to the undisputed monarch in the domain of Kafi. The term Kafi was originally taken from Shah Abdul Latif’s waie, which corresponds to ghazal. Sachal added glory to kafi in his lyrics. After Khalifo Gul Mohammad a host Sindhi poets contributed to the development of the ghazal. The following poets deserve special mention: Qasim Shamsuddin Bulbul, Mir Abdul Hussain Saangi, Bewas Lekhraj Kishanchand Aziz, Zia Fani, Farid, Fakir Abdul Rahim of Groroh and Hafiz Mohammad Hayat.

Humour Shamsuddin Bulbul was the first poet to introduce humor in Sindhi poetry. He can very well be compared to Akbar Allahabadi.

In this field Mohammad Hashim Mukhlis and more particularly Mirza Qaleech Beg, the father of modern Sindhi poetry and prose have left an indelible mark. The latter’s humor is much more polished and constructive. ” Saudai Khan” is a modest collection of his poetry dealing wit the experiences of life and the ravages of time. The book is in two volumes, and each column consists of homage paid to his ancestors and guide. He composed only 14 ghazals in Urdu.

SHAH ABDUL LATIF BHITAI

Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai (1689-1752) perfected Sindhi poetry both in from and in content and is reckoned as the peerless master of Sindhi verses. The most salient feature of his poetry is Sufism, which he had presented with dexterity in his famous work, Shah Jo Risalo. The main characteristics of Shah Leif’s poetry is that it is a ‘remarkable record of God-intoxicated man’s longing to rise above his level of life in order to meet his Maker”. He had a command to express and interpret the joys and sorrows, hopes and aspirations of the people of Sindh. Shah Latif’s poetry depicts nature and its manifestations in a most vivid and vivacious manner. He had composed beautiful verses on the river Indus, the shining surface of lakes and the barren ranges of hills. He had also versified on the behavior of the sea and the boats and boatsmen living on the shore of the sea. He was the most prolific writer and poet of his age. His poetry is deeply rooted in the soil of Sindh, yet it has a universal appeal.

So great is the impact of his immortal work on Sindhi literature that one hears its distinct echo in all the poetry produced by later generations. From the time of shah Latif to the British conquest of Sindh, there were a large number of Sindhi poets, such as Mohammad Zaman of Luwar, Abdul Grohari, Sachal Sarmast, Bedil, Bekas, Sami, Pir Ali Gohar Asghar (Pir Pagaro), Roohal Faqir, Pir Asghar Ali, Pir Ghulam Shah Rashidi and Sabit Ali Shah Sabit, whose works a still to be found. During the days of the Sumras, the Sammas and later on during the Kalhora and the Talpur period, Sindh was the court languag.

SACHAL SARMAST

Sachal Sarmast (Abdul Wahab) is another Sufi poet of distinction who composed verses on philosophy and Sufism. He was at home in a number of languages and composed poetical pieces in Arabic, Sindhi, Saraiki or Multani, Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu and Persian. His poetry is replete with Divine Love. It is on Monotheism, the Glorious Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Mohammad (Peace Be Upon him). He also composed poems of high order in Urdu and Persian. The great Sufi poets-Attar, Jami and Roomi influenced him.

Hiis Sindhi poetry encompasses a wide range of subjects and possesses its own individuality. He perfected a great deal of old style i.e. Abyat and Dohas greatly in vogue before hi, While Shah Latif enhanced the standard of Sindhi to the highest level of excellence in style, diction and subject matter, Sachal Sarmast took the lead in raising the standard and level of kafi, ghazal and marsia in /Sindhi poetry. Unlike Shah Latif, whose compositions are woven around local and folk themes, Sachal has touched on all Great Sufi saints, fountains of knowledge and learning, besides the most popular folktales of the Indus valley. The images, similes, metaphors and allegories employed by Sachal give him a prominent place in Sindhi literature after Shah Latif.

It was in the British period that really good prose began to be produced. Syed Miran Mohammad Shah-I of Tikhar, Diwan Kewal Ram, Ghulam Hussain and Akhund Latifullah are among the early prose writers. But Shamsul Ulema Mirza Qaleech Beg can rightly be called the father of modern Sindhi prose. He is said to have written or translated from other languages about 400 books of poetry, novel short stories, essays etc.

“Diwan-e-Qaleech” is a collection in alphabetical order of his poetry in Sindhi. In contains about 433 verses. Another work of importance is his translation of Rubaiyat-e-Omar Khayyam in which he has followed the same meter as employed in the original Persian work. This translation has filled an important gap in Sindhi literature.

Music the patronage of music in Sindh started wit the advent of Muslims. In 72AD; when the famous Arab General Muhammad Bin Qasim was engaged in his conquest of Sindh, the Sammas of Central Sindh gave him a rousing reception. Headed by musicians, playing the Dhol-and-Shahnai, “Orchestra”, and skilled dancers giving their performances, they came to greet Muhammad Bin Qasim, who echoed the whole show. The grandeur of the musical performance and the big crowd impressed a lieutenant of Muhammad to such an extent that he suggested to the General that their army should pray to God that such a powerful tribe had been subjugated so easily. Muhammad who had a good sense of humor”. The Dhol-and-Shahnai performance whish has been the traditional ” Orchestra” of Sindh, before and since 8th century AD. Is most popular throughout the province even today.

Interest in the classical ‘Hindustani’ as well as the indigenous music in Sindh reached its height in 16th century during the reign of the Turkhan rulers, Mirza Jani Beg and his son Mirza Ghazi Beg. Both the father and the son were great patrons of poets like the famous Talib Amuli and others, and of numerous musicians who invented new musical forms, naghams, and a variety of tunes. Both the rulers were accomplished musicians themselves. Their capital Thatta was the rendezvous.